Which parts of speech are independent? What are independent parts of speech in Russian?

Since ancient times, the minds of scientists have been occupied by the question of parts of speech. Research devoted to them was carried out by Plato, Aristotle, Panini, Jasca. As for Russian linguistics, it is necessary to note the names of V.V. Vinogradov, L.V. Shcherba, A.A. Shakhmatov and others.

Difficulty isolating parts of speech

Parts of speech are the most necessary and general categories in the grammar of any language. Its grammatical description begins by clarifying the question about them. Speaking about parts of speech, they mean the grammatical grouping of certain units of language. In other words, in the vocabulary certain categories or groups are distinguished, characterized by certain characteristics. However, on what basis should parts of speech be distinguished? What is the distribution of words based on? Let's answer this question together.

The problem of the essence of parts of speech, as well as the principles of identifying them in different languages is one of the most in linguistics. Statements on the issue that interests us are varied and numerous. Very often they contradict each other and are not clear. Some believe that individual parts are distinguished on the basis of one leading feature, which is inherent in words belonging to a particular group. Others believe that the basis for identifying parts of speech is a combination of various features, while none of them is leading. If the first opinion is considered correct, then what will be the main feature in this case? A logical category contained in a lexical meaning? Or is it itself? Or the connection between lexical meaning and grammatical category? Is it a syntactic function or a morphological nature? Should different parts of speech be distinguished on different or on the same basis?

Agree, there are a lot of questions. Our knowledge of the grammatical nature of words is still not deep enough for their grammatical classification to be based on scientific basis. The distribution of various words into parts of speech, which arose gradually and was subsequently consolidated in tradition, is not yet a classification. This division is simply a statement of the fact that there are different groups of words that are united by certain features common to them. The latter are more or less significant, but not always clear.

Isolation of parts of speech in Russian

In modern Russian there is a large number of variant morphological forms. Particularly difficult is the word formation of significant variable parts of speech. Some of their forms were recognized as normative and entrenched in literary language, others are considered This determines the need for an in-depth study of such a topic as word formation of significant variable parts of speech. They usually receive special attention at school.

Parts of speech are studied in a section of grammar called morphology. It examines words in terms of their meaning and changes. They can change by number, gender, person, case, etc. A noun, for example, denotes an object. It can change according to cases and numbers. An adjective does not denote an object, but its attribute. It changes according to numbers, genders and cases. However, in the Russian language there are words that do not change in any way. These are, for example, conjunctions, prepositions and adverbs.

Functional and independent parts of speech

So, groups of words that are combined based on common features are called parts of speech. Moreover, the features for different groups of words are not homogeneous. It is necessary to distinguish between significant and non-significant parts of speech. The latter are also called service ones. Significant parts of speech are independent. Both do various jobs. Independent words in a sentence, naming objects, actions, signs, are members of the sentence, while auxiliary words most often connect independent words. Let's look at the latter in more detail.

Pronominal and significant words

Independent parts of speech can be pronominal or significant. Significant words denote attributes, objects, actions, quantities, relationships by naming them. Pronouns only point to them, but do not name them. In a sentence they serve as substitutes for nominatives. Pronominal words form a separate part of speech called a pronoun. Significant words are divided into different parts of speech based on the following characteristics:

Morphological;

Generalized meaning;

Syntactic behavior (functions and connections in the text).

At least 5 groups are distinguished, considering the significant parts of speech. These are three names (adjective, noun, numeral), as well as a verb and an adverb. Sometimes verb forms (gerunds and participles) are distinguished separately. As you can see, parts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words. That is, they are distinguished taking into account syntactic behavior and generalized meaning.

Noun

Let's begin to describe the parts of speech of the Russian language (nominative) with It includes words that:

1) are common nouns or proper nouns, inanimate or animate, have a constant generic sign, as well as non-constant (for the main part of nouns) signs of case and number;

2) they have the meaning of objectivity, therefore they answer the question “what?” or who?";

3) most often they are objects or subjects in a sentence, but they can also be its other members.

Note that when highlighting nouns, the main ones are the grammatical features of the words, and not, for example, their meaning. The main features of significant parts of speech can be different. You will soon see this. As for the meaning of a noun, this is the only part of speech whose meaning can be very different. Let's look at examples: a face (girl), an object (pen), an animal (dog), an abstract concept (pride), a sign (height), an attitude (inequality), an action (study). From the point of view of meaning, these words are united by the fact that in relation to them we can ask one question: “what?” or who?" This, in fact, is their objectivity.

Let's move on to consider the next part of speech - the adjective.

Adjective

This is an independent part of speech, significant. It combines words that:

1) They change according to cases, numbers and genders, and some - according to degrees of comparison and brevity/completeness.

2) They denote some non-procedural attribute of the subject, and therefore answer the questions “whose?” or "which one?"

3) They act in a sentence as the nominal part of the SIS (compound nominal predicate) or definitions.

Adjectives always depend on nouns. Therefore, questions to them should be asked from the latter. Adjectives are needed in order to select the desired one from many identical objects. Without them, our speech would look like a picture painted with gray paint. Thanks to adjectives, it becomes figurative and more accurate, since they allow us to highlight different characteristics of one object.

Numeral

This is another significant part of the speech, independent. It includes words denoting numbers, the order of objects when counting, or their quantity. The numeral answers the following questions: “which one?” or "how much?" It is a part of speech that combines words based on common meaning. And the meaning of numerals is their relationship to number. Note that their grammatical features are heterogeneous. They depend on the rank of value of a particular numeral.

These words play a big role in our lives. We measure time, distance, number of objects and their size, cost, weight with numbers. Numerals in writing are often replaced by numbers. However, in documents, for example, it is necessary that the amount be indicated not only in numbers, but also in words.

Adverb

We continue to expand on the question: “Which parts of speech are significant?” An adverb denotes a sign of a state, a sign, an action, or rarely an object. Note that it is immutable. The exception to this rule is only qualitative adverbs ending in -о/-е. All of them are adjacent either to an adjective, or to a verb, or to another adverb, that is, they characterize the significant parts of speech. Examples: very fast, run fast, very fast. An adverb in a sentence is usually an adverb. Sometimes it can be attached to a noun. Examples are the following: racing, Warsaw coffee, soft-boiled egg. The adverb in these cases acts as a classification of adverbs on two grounds - by meaning and by function.

Verb

Let's move on to the verb, looking at the significant parts of speech. This is a word denoting a state (to rejoice), an action (to write), a property (to limp), a sign (to turn white), an attitude (to be equal). Different groups of verb forms have heterogeneous grammatical features. Such a concept as a “verb word” combines: conjugated forms (impersonal and personal), inconjugated forms (gerunds and participles), as well as an infinitive (indefinite form). Verbs are very important for speech. They allow us to give names to different actions.

Participle

As a morphological phenomenon, participles are interpreted ambiguously in linguistics. Sometimes significant words that are participles are considered as separate parts of speech, and sometimes as a form of a verb. They denote a characteristic of a certain object by action. The participle combines the properties of a verb and an adjective. It is used in writing more often than verbally.

Participle

Let's talk a little about gerunds, expanding on the topic "Significant parts of speech." These are words that, like participles, can be considered either as a special form of a verb, or as an independent part of speech. The signs of the participle are as follows:

1) Designation of an additional action, therefore the participle answers the following questions: “having done what?” or "doing what?"

2) The presence of grammatical features of both adverbs and verbs.

So, we looked at the significant parts of speech. verb, numeral, noun and adjective. Sometimes gerunds and participles are also distinguished separately. Now you will not be mistaken when answering the question: “Which parts of speech are significant?” However, we suggest that you go further and complete your introduction to independent parts of speech by looking at the pronoun.

Pronoun

A pronoun is an independent part of speech that indicates characteristics, objects or quantities, but does not name them. They are different. They depend on which part of speech the pronouns replace in the text. They can be classified according to grammatical characteristics and meaning. Pronouns in speech are used instead of adjectives, nouns, adverbs and numerals. They help to combine sentences into a coherent text and avoid repetition of the same words.

So, we looked at the independent parts of speech (pronominal and nominative), and we briefly described them. We invite you to familiarize yourself with the latter in more detail, since they also play an important role in the language. We hope you have learned to distinguish between significant and auxiliary parts of speech.

§ 1 PARTS OF LANGUAGE PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFYING THEM

Morphology is a branch of grammar that studies grammatical structure words: features of inflection, grammatical forms of the word, ways of expressing grammatical meanings inherent in the word

The central place in morphology belongs to the study of parts of speech

Parts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words, each of which is characterized by a generalized lexical meaning, morphological and syntactic features

The distribution of words into parts of speech is based on the following principles:

1. Semantic (lexical), i.e. Each lexical-grammatical class of words is united by a single common categorical meaning of a part of speech. Such a meaning for a noun is the meaning of objectivity, for a sign - the meaning of the static characteristics of an object, for a numeral - the meaning of a specified or indefinite quantity, for a verb - the meaning of a procedural character.

Based on their correlation with the concept (the presence or absence of lexical meaning), parts of speech are divided into significant and incompletely meaningful

Significant parts of speech are words that have a lexical meaning (perform a nominative function). Among them are noun, adjective, borrower, numeral, verb, adverb

Non-meaningful parts of speech are words that do not have a lexical meaning, but only express various semantic-syntactic relationships between words. These include preposition, conjunction, particle. The exclamation belongs neither to the formal nor to the official, but is a means of expressing (not naming) the emotions, feelings, and volitional impulses of the speaker.

2. Morphological, which determines the originality of the grammatical form of a word - its grammatical categories, famatic meaning. The main morphological feature that forms the basis for the classification of words into parts is their ability or inability to form words (inflections). On this basis, changeable and unchangeable parts of speech are distinguished. Variables include noun, adjective, pronoun, numeral, verbs; What remains unchanged is the adverb, all non-meaningful parts of speech and viguiguk.

3. Syntactic involves taking into account the ability of words to act as members of sentences. Each significant part of speech is assigned a specific syntactic role. Thus, nouns more often act as a subtext or an appendix in a sentence, adjectives as a definition, verbs as a predicate, and adverbs as a circumstance. Based on the syntactic principle, parts of speech are divided into independent and auxiliary. Independent ones include the name, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb, which always act as parts of a sentence. Functional ones include preposition, conjunction and proportion, which serve to express syntactic relationships between members of a sentence or parts of complex sentences.

4. Derivational (as an auxiliary, since it concerns only derived words) is reflected in the characteristics of individual parts speech derivational affixes

Parts of speech belong to a single lexical-grammatical system, between the units of which there are close connections and determine interrelated transitions. Many words can lose their grammatical features, acquire new features, and in connection with this move from one part of speech to another. Thus, adjectives and participles experience substantivization (transition into nouns):: sentry, young, old, scientist. Nouns can be used as adverbs: in summer, in the morning; pronouns - as conjunctions: which, which, what; nouns - as prepositions: (our region is the region of the village) etc.

511 noun

§ 2 General characteristics of a noun as a part of speech

a noun is a significant variable part of speech that combines words with the meaning of objectivity, expressed in the forms of gender, number and case

In objectivity we understand the names of the actual objects - the names of creatures (woman, brother, Kievite, bird, deer), individual things (bed, chair, fork, doors), plants (aspen, marigolds, sedge) natural phenomena (rain, snow, wind, frost) different units of measurement (year, week, kilometer, meter) as well as the names of signs, qualities abstracted from their carriers (courage, beauty, kindness, bravery), actions, processes, states without indicating the persons who perform them (singing, running, reading, thinking, waiting)

The extra-categorical meaning of objectivity, characteristic of nouns, is conveyed using the morphological categories of gender, number and case, which are grammatically independent and defining for the noun

Each singular noun has the form of one of three genders - masculine (father, oak), feminine (hand, night, earth) or neuter (village, shoulder, knowledge). Plural nouns have no grammatical gender (holidays, scissors, Carpathians).

The grammatical category of the number of a noun is expressed in singular and plural forms (student-students, river-rivers, lake-lakes). Some nouns are used only in the singular (hudinnya, milk, courage, studentship) and because only in plural(rakes, yeast, finances, debates, Lubny).

Nouns change by case (house, houses, house, house, (in) house). A special group consists of indeclinable nouns - these are some (interview, radio) abbreviations (HAH head of the department) female surnames(Kravchuk, Fesenko)

In a sentence, nouns can act as any member - both main and secondary:. Summer flows down (subject) with solar boiling water (circumstance) (V. Teren) . A faithful friend (subject) is the greatest treasure (predicate)

1. All words of the Russian language can be divided into groups called parts of speech.

Together with syntax, morphology makes up a branch of the science of language called grammar.

2. Each part of speech has characteristics that can be grouped into three groups:

3. All parts of speech are divided into two groups - independent (significant) And official. Interjections occupy a special position in the system of parts of speech.

4. Independent (nominative) parts of speech include words naming objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions about independent words, and in a sentence significant words are members of the sentence.

The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:

Notes

1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position of participles and gerunds in the system of parts of speech. Some researchers classify them as independent parts of speech, others consider them special forms of the verb. Participle and gerund really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and forms of the verb. IN this manual we adhere to the point of view reflected, for example, in the textbook: Babaytseva V.V., Chesnokova L.L. Russian language. Theory. 5-9 grades. M., 2001.

2) In linguistics there is no single point of view on the composition of such parts of speech as numerals. In particular, in “academic grammar” it is customary to consider ordinal numbers as a special category of adjectives. However, school tradition classifies them as numerals. We will adhere to this position in this manual.

3) Different manuals characterize the composition of pronouns differently. In particular, the words there, there, nowhere etc. in some school textbooks they are classified as adverbs, in others - as pronouns. In this manual we consider such words as pronouns, adhering to the point of view reflected in “academic grammar” and in the textbook: Babaytseva V.V., Chesnokova L.L. Russian language. Theory. 5-9 grades. M., 2001.

5. Functional parts of speech- these are words that do not name objects, actions, or signs, but express only the relationships between them.

Functional words cannot be questioned.

Function words are not parts of the sentence.

Function words serve independent words, helping them connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.

The auxiliary parts of speech in Russian include the following:

pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);

union (and, but, however, because, so that, if);

particle (would, whether, not, even, exactly, only).

6. occupy a special position among parts of speech.

Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words and do not serve to connect words (as auxiliary parts of speech).

Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use interjections such as ah, oh, uh; to express the feeling of cold - br-r, to express fear or pain - Ouch etc.

7. As noted, some words in Russian can change, others cannot.

TO immutable include all auxiliary parts of speech, interjections, as well as such significant parts of speech as:

adverbs ( forward, always);

gerunds ( leaving, leaving, accepting).

Some also remain unchanged:

nouns ( coat, taxi, blinds);

adjectives ( beige coat, electric blue suit);

pronouns ( then, there).

by using graduation;

Wed: sister - sisters; read - read.

by using endings and prepositions;

Sister - to sister, with sister, with sister.

by using auxiliary words.

§ 67. In the Swedish language, as well as in Russian, cases of transition from one part of speech to another are often observed.

Such cases include, for example, substantivization- the transition of any significant part of speech or function word to the category of nouns. Substantivalization occurs when given word used to denote the corresponding concept as the subject of reasoning, thought, etc. Wed., e.g., conjunction men But and concept ett men one thing as a synonym for a noun with the meaning objection, difficulty, snag: Här finns et men. (Strindberg) There is one thing here. Acquiring the meaning of a noun (beginning to denote an object in the broad sense of the word), such a substantivized word also receives some formal characteristics of a noun - gender, usually neuter (except for certain cases of substantivization of adjectives and participles, see § 233), article, definite and indefinite, etc. d. In terms of its functions in a sentence, a substantivized word is no longer different from an ordinary noun.

Another example of transition from one part of speech to another is changing adverbs into prepositions, in particular, cf. av(in phrases av och an back and forth) and the preposition that arose from it av from; adverb för too much(eg. för mycket too much, för stor too big) and preposition för for, for; adverb over over, more (Det hande over hundra år sedan. This happened more than 100 years ago.) and preposition over above. On the other hand, some of the adverbs are prepositional phrases in origin, for example. i dag Today(from in a day); afterhand gradually(from efter by, after And hand hand); till fot on foot(from the combination till to, to And fot leg in birth fallen).

Similar phenomena occur in the region verb(nominative verbs often turn into copular or auxiliary verbs, see §§ 279–280).

Finally, an example of a transition from one part of speech to another is the transformation various parts speeches in modal words And interjections. For example, the modal word tank just think about it is in origin an imperative mood from the verb tanka think, Wed Tank, jag vet inte mer om henne, än hon lever!(Lagerlöf) Just think, I don’t know anything about her except that she’s alive!. Or the interjection se, se in the following example is the origin of the form imperative mood from the verb se see: Se, se, ni vuxna män, här är arbete för er! Här är… plank, foga samman en nöddam.(Lagerlöf) Come on men, there's something here for you! Here... planks, put together a temporary dam.