Oliver Cromwell is what a politician. Cromwell Oliver - biography, facts from life, photographs, background information. Last years of life
Oliver Cromwell(English) Oliver Cromwell; April 25, Huntingdon - September 3, London) - leader of the English Revolution, an outstanding military leader and statesman, in - gg. - Lieutenant General of the Parliamentary Army, in - gg. - Lord General, in - gg. - First Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland. It is believed that his death was due to malaria or poisoning. After his death, his body was removed from the grave, hanged and quartered, which was the traditional punishment for treason in England.
Origin
Born into the family of a poor Puritan landowner in Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire. He studied at the parish school of Huntingdon, in - gg. - at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, which was a newly founded college with a strong Puritan spirit. However, he dropped out without receiving his degree, possibly due to the death of his father, Robert Cromwell (1560-1617).
Before the war, Oliver Cromwell was a simple landowner. Cromwell's distant ancestors enriched themselves during the reign of King Henry VIII, when they confiscated monastic and church lands. After he dropped out of Cambridge University Law Faculty, Oliver had to marry the daughter of a poor London merchant. After the wedding, Cromwell took up farming on his estate.
Cromwell was a zealous Protestant and Puritan. The catch phrase was Cromwell’s words addressed to the soldiers while crossing the river: “Trust in God, but keep your gunpowder dry!”
Military career
At the outbreak of the English Civil War, Cromwell began his military career by leading a 60-horse cavalry unit as captain known as the Ironside Cavalry, which became the basis of his New Model Army. Cromwell's leadership at the Battle of Marston Moor brought him to great eminence. Cromwell turned out to be a talented commander. His troops won one victory after another over the king's supporters, and it was Cromwell's army that completely defeated Charles I in the decisive battle of Naseby on June 14, 1645. As leader of the parliamentary Puritan coalition (also known as the "Roundheads" because of their close-cropped hair) and commander of the New Model Army, Cromwell defeated King Charles I, ending the monarch's claim to absolute power. Oliver Cromwell, having received certain powers, abolished the upper house of parliament and appointed a council from his Protestant comrades-in-arms. Under the new leader, Oliver Cromwell, the following amendments were adopted: duels in the army were abolished, civil marriage was allowed, and all royal property was transferred to the state treasury. Cromwell also received the title of Generalissimo. However, having taken power into his own hands (having received the new title of Lord Protector), Cromwell began to establish strict order and establish his dictatorship. He brutally suppressed uprisings in Ireland and Scotland, divided the country into 12 military governorates led by major generals reporting to him, introduced protection of main roads, and established a tax collection system. He collected money, and considerable money, for all the transformations from the defeated supporters of the king.
During his reign, Oliver Cromwell made peace with Denmark, Sweden, Holland, France, and Portugal. He continued the war with England's longtime enemy, Spain. Through consistency and firmness, Cromwell ensured that both England and its head, the Lord Protector, were respected in Europe. After order was established in the country, Cromwell allowed the election of parliament. Oliver Cromwell nobly refused to accept the crown and was given the honor of appointing his own successor, the new king.
Until his death, he was popular among the people, including due to the image of a “people’s” politician as opposed to the respectable gentry and the king. Of particular importance in this case was such a trait of Cromwell as absolute incorruptibility. It is also important to note that Cromwell was constantly under guard (there were several units, constantly changing each other according to the duty schedule) and often changed places of overnight stay.
Until Cromwell's death, England remained a republic. After his death, his eldest son Richard became Lord Protector, and Oliver himself was buried with extraordinary pomp. However, it was then that real chaos, arbitrariness and unrest began in the country, since the military people had power. The deputies were frightened by the prospects with such a situation in the country and quickly called for the throne the son of King Charles I, who had recently been executed by them, Charles II. After this, Cromwell’s body was dug out of the grave and executed on the gallows, as was fitting for state traitors.
Bibliography
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See what "Cromwell Oliver" is in other dictionaries:
- (1599 1658) figure in the English Revolution of the 17th century, leader of the Independents. With the convening of the so-called Long Parliament (in 1640), he gained fame as a supporter of the interests of the bourgeoisie and the new nobility. In the civil war of 1642 46... ... Historical Dictionary
Cromwell Oliver- (Cromwell, Oliver) (1599 1658), English. state figure, Lord Protector of the Republic of England (1653 58). Genus. in the Huntingdon gentry family, an indirect descendant of Thomas Cromwell. As a member of the opposition in the Long Parliament, K. came forward during... ... World history
This term has other meanings, see Cromwell. Oliver Cromwell Oliver Cromwell ... Wikipedia
- (Cromwell) (1599 1658), figure in the English Revolution of the 17th century, leader of the Independents. In 1640 he was elected to the Long Parliament. One of the main organizers of the parliamentary army, which won victories over the royal army in the 1st (1642-46) and 2nd (1648)… … Encyclopedic Dictionary
Cromwell Oliver (25.4.1599, Huntingdon, ≈ 3.9.1658, London). leader of the English bourgeois revolution of the 17th century, leader of the Independents, Lord Protector of England (from 1653); according to F. Engels’ definition, “... combined in one person Robespierre and... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Cromwell, Oliver- CROMWELL, Oliver, known. English state and military figure, gen. in 1599. The son is not rich. a landowner, he grew up in the village and received an elementary education. education in local coming. school. Having then graduated from the University of Cambridge, K. studied for some time... ... Military encyclopedia
- (Cromwell, Oliver) (1599 1658), English statesman and military leader, leader of the Puritan revolution, who, as Lord Protector of the Republic of England, Scotland and Ireland, made the greatest contribution to the formation of modern England.... ... Collier's Encyclopedia
Cromwell Oliver- O. Cromwell. Portrait. 17th century Museum of Versailles. O. Cromwell. Portrait. 17th century Museum of Versailles. Cromwell Oliver () figure in the English Revolution of the 17th century, leader of the Independents. With the convening of the so-called Long Parliament (.) gained fame as... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary "World History"
Cromwell, Oliver- O. Cromwell. Portrait. 17th century Museum of Versailles. CROMWELL (Cromwell) Oliver (1599 1658), leader of the English revolution of the 17th century. In 1640 he was elected to the Long Parliament. One of the main organizers of the parliamentary army, which defeated the royal army in... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
- (Cromwell) Lord Protector of England, b. in 1599 at Huntingdon. His family belonged to the middle nobility and rose to prominence during the era of the closure of the monasteries under Henry VIII, receiving, thanks to the patronage of Thomas K. (q.v.), valuable confiscated estates... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
Books
- 100 great rebels and rebels, N. Ionina, S. Istomin, M. Kubeev, This book, which was created by the writers N. A. Ionina, S. V. Istomin and M. N. Kubeev, is dedicated to the great rebels and rebels of different countries and eras - from the Ancient East and Antiquity to the last... Category:
Oliver Cromwell is an English commander and statesman of the 16th-17th centuries. He became the leader of the English Revolution, led the movement of Independents who separated from the Puritans, and in the later years of his political career served as Lord General and Lord Protector of England, Ireland and Scotland.
The biography of Oliver Cromwell began on April 25, 1599 in the city of Huntingdon. His parents were poor English nobles - Elizabeth Steward and Robert Cromwell. The latter was the youngest son in a family descended from Thomas Cromwell (the closest ally of King Henry VIII and his main assistant in implementing reforms). During the reign of this king, the ancestors of Oliver Cromwell made a fortune through the confiscation of ecclesiastical and monastic lands.
Oliver received his primary education at the parish school of his hometown. Between 1616 and 1617 he studied at Sidney Sussex College, affiliated to the University of Cambridge. This college was known for its Puritan spirit. Cromwell Jr. began studying at the Faculty of Law, but soon decided to quit his studies and married the daughter of a neighboring landowner.
Oliver was prompted to take such a step by the death of his father: he had to give up his education in order to help his mother and sisters. During this period of his life, he ran a household as a squire should: he brewed beer, made cheese, sold bread and wool.
Policy
In 1628, Cromwell tried to start a political campaign. He even managed to get elected to parliament from his native Huntingdon district. Oliver's first speech in England's highest legislative body took place in February 1629. It was dedicated to the defense of Puritan preachers. But already in March of the same year, King Charles I dissolved parliament, and Cromwell’s career ended before it really began.
Over the next eleven years, Cromwell again led the life of an ordinary landowner. In the period from 1636 to 1638, he took part in the movement to protect the communal rights of peasants. A few years later, Oliver Cromwell reappeared on the political scene of his country: in April and November 1640 he was elected to the Short and Long Parliaments, respectively. Cromwell became MP for Cambridge. In his speeches, he mainly defended the interests of the new nobility and bourgeoisie.
English Revolution
In August 1642, the English Revolution (English Civil War) began. The main opposing forces during this revolution were King Charles I and parliament. Oliver Cromwell fought on the side of the parliamentary army, which he joined with the rank of captain.
He decided to recruit soldiers not under duress - instead, he wanted to find volunteer cavalrymen for whom divine justice and the fight against the king would be akin to conviction. Oliver Cromwell found such “ideological” subjects in the yeoman peasants who lived in East Anglia.
They were ardent Puritans and strongly opposed the feudal order. Cromwell's regiment, composed of these peasants, was nicknamed the "Ironsides" for their exceptional discipline and fortitude.
The commander went through many battles with his army, gradually receiving higher and higher ranks. In 1644 he was awarded the title of lieutenant general. His skill as a military leader was of particular importance in the Battle of Marston Moor, which took place on July 2, 1644, and in the Battle of Naseby, which took place on June 14, 1645. These battles were decisive in the history of the English Revolution, and without the military genius of Oliver Cromwell they could have gone differently.
The history of England after the victory of Parliament in the First Civil War followed the path of transition to a constitutional monarchy from an absolute one. The dictatorship of the king, who single-handedly determines how the country's politics will develop, is a thing of the past. Moreover, it was the organizational skills and inexhaustible energy of Oliver Cromwell, confident that he was fighting for a just cause, that largely determined the success of parliament in confronting the king.
Soon after the end of the English Revolution, Cromwell demanded the transformation of the state army. In 1645, he contributed to the creation of a new type of army, based on “ironside” units. Cromwell used the experience gained over several years of war to create an effective army.
Civil war
Directly during the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell represented the forces of revolutionary democracy. But after the parliament defeated the king's troops, the commander decided to move to a more moderate political position and abandon radical democratic views. Because of this, he had a confrontation with the Levellers, who were not happy with the result of the English Revolution and demanded that the battles continue.
In 1647, Oliver Cromwell found himself caught between three serious political forces: the king, the army and the Presbyterian representatives in Parliament, who had the majority of votes. In this situation, from a brave and inspiring military leader, Cromwell turned into a clever and resourceful politician, relying on the army and brutally punishing rebellious soldiers in a secret alliance with the king.
Also in 1647, the army captured the king. Oliver Cromwell tried to resolve the situation by negotiating with the king about the conditions under which the monarchy could be maintained. The Levellers, still demanding radical change, saw this as a betrayal. No matter how hard the politician tried to unite the warring parties, he failed to prevent the Second Civil War, which began in 1648.
During this revolution, Oliver Cromwell opposed the royalists and, in order to strengthen his army, agreed to an alliance with the Levellers. During September and October 1648 he fought against the royalists in Scotland and the north of England. In early October, his troops entered Edinburgh, where a victorious peace treaty was signed. In the following months, the commander, coming to London with his army, achieved the cleansing of the House of Commons of ardent royalist supporters.
In 1649, Cromwell agreed to the execution of the king, the destruction of the monarchy and the proclamation of England as a republic. The “silk” independents, led by Oliver Cromwell, were in power. He showed himself to be a tough ruler: he ruthlessly suppressed any attempts at uprising, initiated a bloody military expedition, during which Ireland learned firsthand about the cruelty of his soldiers, and continued to mercilessly crush royalist detachments.
Last years of life
As Oliver Cromwell's life waned, his reign became increasingly conservative. Once a defender of the people, he began to be hostile to the desire of his subjects to establish democracy and to the social demands they made. In 1650, he became Lord General of the Republic, that is, commander-in-chief of all its armed forces, which he intended to use to establish a personal dictatorship.
In 1653, the commander adopted a new Constitution, which was called the “Instrument of Control.” This document gave him the status of "Lord Protector" in England, Ireland and Scotland. Conducting the internal policy of the state was difficult for him: an economic crisis was brewing in the country, acute social problems remained unresolved. At the same time, Cromwell was successful in foreign policy, capturing Jamaica, signing a trade treaty with Sweden and concluding peace with Holland on terms favorable to England.
Although during Oliver Cromwell's lifetime the republic was not abolished, and his power was not questioned, the commander's inept internal policies only brought the restoration of the monarchy closer. After his death in 1658, his son Richard, who soon lost power, became the successor to the Lord Protector.
Personal life
Cromwell's only wife was Elizabeth Bourchier, whom he married after dropping out of university.
This marriage produced eight children: sons Robert, Oliver, Henry and Richard, and daughters Frances, Maria, Elizabeth and Bridget.
Death
Oliver Cromwell died on September 3, 1658, the cause of death being typhoid fever and malaria. The funeral of the state leader was magnificent and pompous, but soon after this, unrest, chaos and arbitrariness began in the country, which Cromwell’s successor, his eldest son Richard, could not cope with.
In 1659, deputies, having called Charles II to the throne (the son of Charles I, whose execution was once agreed to by Oliver Cromwell), exhumed the commander’s body on charges of regicide in order to carry out a posthumous execution. The body hung on the gallows for several hours, after which his head was placed on a pole near the Palace of Westminster.
- There is a legend that as a child, little Oliver Cromwell met his peer Charles I, who was destined to become king of England. During the game, the boys fought, and Cromwell even broke his friend’s nose.
- In 1970, the historical film “Cromwell” was shot, in which the leading actor, Richard Harris, received praise from film critics for his excellent embodiment of the character.
- In early childhood, Oliver had two brothers, but they died in infancy. As a result, the boy grew up surrounded by six sisters, with whom he had warm relationships.
- Until the age of 41, Cromwell did not feel any particular passion for revolutionary activities. Only when he recruited a detachment of “ironsides” with his own money did a true love for politics and a desire to make the history of his country awaken in him.
- September 3 turned out to be a fatal date in the fate of Oliver Cromwell. It was on this day that he defeated the Scottish troops at Denbar, the army of Charles I at Worcester, it was on September 3 that his first parliament began to work, and subsequently this day began to be celebrated as Thanksgiving Day. Oliver Cromwell also died on September 3.
Non-state educational autonomous non-profit organization
higher professional education
Samara Institute of Business and Management
Faculty of Law
Test
Discipline: ___History of state and law of foreign countries___.
Subject : Oliver Cromwell: portrait of an English statesman
Completed by student
1st year group YuV-110-4r
Vasilenko Yu.A.
Checked by the teacher:
Associate Professor Bogdanova O.V.
Submission date:_______________
Date of inspection:____________
Grade:___________________
Samara 2010
Introduction…………………………………………...…………………………3
1. The beginning of O. Cromwell’s political career…………………………...……….4
2. From Commander-in-Chief to Lord Protector…………………………………..7
3. Lord Protector: problems and achievements……………………………………..11
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….16
References…………………………………………………………………………………17
Introduction
One of the significant features of the English bourgeois revolution is that its ascending and descending lines represent stages in the political biography of one person - Oliver Cromwell. The creator of the revolutionary army, a commander who won many brilliant victories, the greatest politician of his time, who dissolved parliaments as easily as he convened them, a tireless opponent of the monarchy, who sent the king to the chopping block, and then turned into a conservative dictator who appropriated the prerogatives of the monarch, the leader of European Protestantism, Oliver Cromwell reached the pinnacle of power in 9 years.
The purpose of this work is to trace the process of formation of Oliver Cromwell as a political leader and to clarify his connection with the development of the English bourgeois revolution in the categories of objective and subjective.
1. The beginning of O. Cromwell's political career
OLIVER CROMWELL (1599–1658) - English statesman and military leader, leader of the Puritan revolution, who, as Lord Protector of the Republic of England, Scotland and Ireland, made his greatest contribution to the formation of modern England. Cromwell was born on April 25, 1599 in Huntingdon (Cambridgeshire) into a family of typical English nobles (gentry) - Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward. When Oliver was born, his grandfather, Sir Henry Cromwell, was one of the two richest landowners in Huntingdon, but Cromwell's father was of modest means. In 1616, Oliver graduated from school in Huntingdon, after which he was sent to one of the colleges of Cambridge University, Sidney Sussex. But a year later, the death of his father forced 18-year-old Oliver, the only son in the family, to leave the university to help his mother and sisters. At 21, Cromwell married Elizabeth Burshire, the daughter of a London leather merchant, and returned to Huntingdon, where he took up farming.
Over the next 20 years, Cromwell led the ordinary life of a rural nobleman and landowner, albeit filled with intense spiritual quest; in addition, he took an active part in local political life.
Both at school and at the university, and during his time in London, Cromwell was influenced by the expanding Puritan movement, within which three main political movements emerged:
Presbyterians - which included the big bourgeoisie and the landed aristocracy. Their demand was to limit royal arbitrariness and establish a constitutional monarchy with strong power for the king;
Independents - representatives of the middle and petty nobility, the middle strata of the urban bourgeoisie. They sought the establishment of a limited constitutional monarchy, recognition and proclamation of the inalienable rights and freedoms of their subjects;
Levellers - a movement of artisans, free peasants who demanded the establishment of a republic and equal rights for all citizens.
In 1629, as a result of a clash between the king and parliament, the sole rule of the king begins. The years of non-parliamentary rule (1629-1640) were characterized by complete arbitrariness of royal power. During this period, Charles I made many enemies for himself, imposing exorbitant taxes on all layers of society. One of the results of this was an armed uprising in Scotland, which created the threat of a Scots invasion of England.
Military failures and lack of funds forced Charles I to convene a parliament, which worked from April 13 to May 5, 1640 and was called the Short Parliament. Cromwell was elected to the House of Commons (from Cambridge), where he immediately established himself as a militant Puritan, consistently supporting critics of the established church and government.
The House of Commons did not satisfy the king's request for a subsidy to wage war with the Scots, after which Charles I dissolved parliament.
However, in the summer of 1640, the Scots again defeated Charles and, most humiliating of all, occupied the northern regions of England. Charles I turned for help to the new parliament, which met in the autumn of 1640, and Cromwell was again elected to it from Cambridge. The Long Parliament (November 3, 1640–April 20, 1653) rejected the king's policies and obliged him to renounce many of his prerogatives.
The House of Commons adopted the 204-point “Great Remonstrance,” which expressed rejection of the government course and distrust of the king. In the Remonstrance there were demands to remove bishops from the House of Lords and reduce their power over their subjects; it was proposed to carry out a complete reformation of the church; many articles in it were devoted to issues of inviolability of property - both movable and immovable; a number of articles pointed to the need to stop and the impossibility in future of arbitrariness in the collection of taxes on the part of the royal power of unparliamentary rule. Cromwell voted for the Great Remonstrance with the greatest enthusiasm, declaring that if it had not passed, he would have left England forever.
When an uprising against the British began in Ireland in 1641, Parliament decided to take an unprecedented step, demanding for itself the right to appoint all royal ministers and the high command of the army. The infuriated king attempted to personally arrest five leaders of parliament on charges of treason. When this failed, Charles I left London (10 January 1642) to gather his supporters in the north of England. The House of Commons, in turn, declared martial law in the country and sent members of parliament to their constituencies to establish control over local arsenals and militia. Upon his arrival in Cambridge, Cromwell took possession of the castle, arrested the captain of the county detachment and prevented the colleges from sending some of the silver utensils to the king as donations.
From this time on, Cromwell, now 40 years old, moved to the forefront - both as a military organizer and as a leader of the Puritan movement. He became famous for his radical Puritan views in the Long Parliament, advocating the complete abolition of the episcopate, and throughout eastern England he was known as a fighter for the right of church communities to elect both their priests and those forms of religious life that suit the given community.
2. From Commander-in-Chief to Lord Protector
In August 1642, the civil war began. Cromwell, by nature an excellent cavalry officer, recruited his own detachment of parliamentary supporters in Huntingdon. With him, he took part in the final phase of the battle of Edgehill, which ended in a draw, on October 23, 1642. Subsequently, he replenished the detachment, bringing it in size to a full regiment, and received the rank of colonel in February 1643.
At the first stage of the war, the advantage is on the side of the royal army, which is better trained and armed. The failures of the parliamentary army forced its reorganization according to the plan proposed by O. Cromwell.
In 1644, Cromwell played a key role in passing the Bill of Denial, which required members of Parliament holding commanding posts in the army to resign so that new blood could be brought into the army. Soldiers began to be recruited from people of military origin, the army was subordinated to a single command, and capable people from the people were promoted to command positions. Cromwell, being an Independent, provided a leadership role in the army for members of the Independent communities. In battles, Cromwell showed remarkable personal courage, resourcefulness and leadership talent. And the general turning point in the war was made possible primarily thanks to the persistence with which Cromwell held eastern England.
In 1645, the royal troops were defeated, and the king fled to Scotland, where he was handed over to parliament.
By this time, the differences between parliament and the army were becoming more and more clear. For the Presbyterians sitting in Parliament, the revolution was essentially completed. During the Civil War, Parliament made some changes, which, from the point of view of the Presbyterians, were quite sufficient. By the law abolishing the “knighthood” of 1646, large landowners were exempted from payments to the crown, the lands of the king and his supporters were confiscated and put on sale, and the Presbyterian religion was introduced. It was necessary to consolidate the new order, achieve peace with the king and prevent more radical changes.
The Independents, relying on the new army they created, believed. That we cannot stop there and should strive to expand the rights of parliament, as well as transform the electoral law, which would ensure the representation of trade and financial circles in parliament. Thus, the revolutionary camp was experiencing a new split, expressed in a conflict between parliament and the army.
Cromwell, Oliver(English Oliver Cromwell; April 25, 1599, Huntingdon - September 3, 1658, London) - leader of the English revolution, Lord Protector (dictator) of England in 1653-58.
He initiated the return of Jews to England.
Origin and short biography
Oliver Cromwell was a distant descendant of Chancellor Thomas Cromwell, who served and was executed by King Henry VIII. With the help of Thomas, the confiscated monastery lands were purchased and inherited by Oliver.
Born into the family of a poor Puritan squire in Cambridge. He studied at Huntingdon parish school, and in 1616-1617 at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. His father died when Thomas was 18 years old. He left Cambridge to look after his family, but spent about a year studying law at Lincoln Inn in London. In August 1620 he married Elizabeth Butcher; they had nine children.
At the age of 30, Cromwell sold his lands and became a tenant of Henry Lawrence, who led an illegal Calvinist sect. They planned to go to America, but were unable to. There is evidence that Oliver was a preacher in a secret house of worship.
During the Revolution, Cromwell became a Member of Parliament. In 1643 he received the rank of colonel, recruited and trained a cavalry regiment. Successfully fought against the royalists. He rose to the rank of general. He carried out reforms in the army, completely reorganized it. Defeated the royal troops.
As a member of parliament, he insisted on the execution of the king. Having become a political leader, he seized power and established a personal dictatorship. He abolished the House of Lords and carried out a number of important reforms in the field of civil law.
Brutally suppressed uprisings in Ireland and Scotland. He carried out an administrative reform that increased the level of order and security in the country. After this he organized new parliamentary elections.
Oliver Cromwell made peace with Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, France, and Portugal. He continued the war with Spain. He appointed his successor - a new king, who was supposed to take power after Cromwell's death (thus restoring the monarchy).
He was completely incorruptible, which almost never happened in those days. He was very popular among the people. Died of an unknown reason. Given the constant attempts to kill him, historians do not rule out poisoning. However, it is impossible to know this for sure, since the level of sanitation and medicine of that time did not contribute to the long life of even rich people.
The process of returning Jews to England begins
Having Puritan views based largely on the Old Testament, and being religiously tolerant, Cromwell considered Jews useful. He quickly realized the material benefits of their return to the country.
In 1653, England accepted the first 20 Marrano families who fled the Inquisition. The head of the underground Jewish community in London, Antonio Fernandez de Carvajal, helped parliament with money in the fight against the king and, through his agents, obtained information about royalist connections with Spain.
When Menashe ben Israel presented Cromwell with the Humble Addresses, a petition for the return of the Jews to England, Cromwell initiated a conference in Whitehall in December 1655. It was attended by representatives of the army, business circles, lawyers and 16 theologians. Cromwell carefully selected them on the basis of religious tolerance.
First of all, the conference established that there was no law prohibiting Jews from living in England, and that the expulsion of 1290 was illegal in the first place. But when discussing the conditions for the return of Jews, the interests of the conference participants and the segments of the population they represented began to influence. When it became apparent that return could only be permitted on the most unfavorable terms, Cromwell dissolved the conference after its fourth meeting.
It was expected that he would give a favorable response to Menashe ben Israel with his own authority. However, taking into account public opinion, Cromwell preferred to accept informal agreements. The London Marrano community had to be content with a favorable response to a modest petition in which they simply asked for permission to establish a cemetery and to be granted freedom of religion.
Cromwell's personal sympathies were evident in the £100 pension granted to Menashe ben Israel. His favorable attitude toward the Jews was so noticeable that, according to his enemies, the Jews looked upon him as one of their own.
State: Kingdom of England
Scope of activity: Military leader, politician, statesman
Greatest Achievement: Leader of the English Revolution.
The English general and statesman Oliver Cromwell won a number of decisive victories in the Civil War. He was then given the title Lord Protector of Great Britain and Ireland. Cromwell helped England restore its position in Europe after several years of decline.
Early years
Oliver Cromwell was born on April 25, 1599 in Huntingdon, England. His father, Richard, was the youngest son of one of the richest men in the area, Sir Henry Cromwell. Henry Cromwell was nicknamed "The Golden Knight". Little is known about Oliver Cromwell's childhood, except for the fact that he attended a simple school with a religious bias.
In 1616, Cromwell entered Sidney Sussex College in Cambridge, which he later abandoned.
Career in politics
For the next few years he lived in London. In 1620, he married Elizabeth Bourchier, daughter of the landowner James Bourchier. Cromwell then returned to Huntingdon to his family estate. There he was engaged in farming and social work, defending the rights of the poor. These were years of depression for Cromwell, from which he was able to emerge by realizing that he needed to do more for society.
In 1640, Cromwell began working in Parliament. At this time, England was ruled by Charles I. The king pursued policies with which many English gentlemen, including Cromwell, did not agree. In addition, Charles I started a war with Scotland, which threatened to end in defeat for England.
Parliament was extremely critical of the king's actions. Cromwell joined the ranks of parliamentarians who believed that the power of the king should be limited. He was a man of few words, but in his speeches he harshly criticized Charles I and the Church. Cromwell devoted himself to reforming the judiciary and the Church.
Civil war
By 1642 it became obvious that war between Parliament and the king could not be avoided. Cromwell was given command of a small army, in control of which Cromwell demonstrated his talent as a military leader and tactics. Under the leadership of the Earl of Manchester and Cromwell, regiments from different counties were united into a single military force, called the Eastern Association. In 1644, Cromwell earned fame as the most powerful general in Parliament. He defeated the cavalry of Prince Rupert, the king's most successful general.
However, despite the victories of parliamentarians in eastern England, successes in the rest of the English territories were not so significant. After two years of war, the king was still able to fight and the morale of the parliamentary party was rapidly declining. The price paid for an alliance with the Scots was too high and the people longed for peace. It was with great regret that Cromwell was forced to fight the Earl of Manchester. He soon became the most talented military leader in the Parliamentary army after 14 June 1645, when he defeated Royalist forces in Northamptonshire. Within a year of this battle, the royal army surrendered.
End of the war
In 1648, the Royalists rebelled again, allied with the Scots. Cromwell launched a lightning attack and defeated two armies. The Republicans then put Charles I on trial, and Cromwell agreed to sign the death warrant. On January 30, 1649, the king was executed.
The execution of the king did not settle the situation. Soon the Scottish and Irish armies rebelled. Cromwell led an Irish military campaign in which thousands of soldiers and hundreds of civilians were killed.
On June 26, 1650, Cromwell was appointed commander of the army of Parliament. In August 1650, in Dunbar, he was surrounded by 12 thousand Scots.
Despite the seemingly hopeless situation, Cromwell's troops won this battle. Cromwell was sure that God himself helped him win.
The following year, Charles II's Scottish army attempted to break into England, but Cromwell overtook them at Worcester on September 3, 1651. Cromwell won, and this battle was the final end of many years of war. Cromwell came to the conclusion that he was an instrument in the hands of God.
Cromwell's reign
For five years after the execution, parliament worked to create a new constitution. On April 20, 1653, Cromwell burst into the House of Commons with his soldiers and, shouting “The Lord will end you!”, dispersed them.
Cromwell's protectorate was established, which showed high efficiency. National authority in Scotland and Ireland was abolished, and the countries themselves were annexed to England. Governance throughout this territory was carried out by a new unified parliament, which was convened in 1654. A conflict soon arose between Cromwell and the united parliament, and after some time Cromwell dissolved it.
Under the new constitution, Cromwell received the title "Lord Protector". The reforms restored the House of Lords and gave Cromwell the powers of king. Cromwell did not seek power: he did not prepare successors for himself, did not try to pass the throne to his son, and did not want to create a new ruling dynasty. Even at the height of power, Cromwell maintained the belief that he was merely an instrument in the hands of God.
Cromwell pursued an effective foreign policy. His navy achieved great success in the West Indies. Among other things, he founded an alliance with France against Spain. These victories, along with the conquest of Scotland and Ireland, brought Cromwell great popularity. Cromwell died on September 3, 1658, and soon the government he created collapsed. In 1660, the monarchy was restored in England.
Cromwell's legacy
Cromwell's merits are often questioned. He was a talented general and statesman, but he was never able to realize many of his goals. In any case, Cromwell had such admirable qualities as self-control and decency. Few people can boast that, having such enormous power, they did not abuse it.
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