I write from the Greek words earth. Natural Sciences. What did the ancient Slavs do? Emphasize

Geography(from the Greek words: γέα - earth and γράφω - write, depict - the name “geography” means “description” or “image of the Earth”) - a set of sciences about planet Earth.

A very significant question in relation to the content, tasks and limits of geology is the difficult question of its delimitation from geology, which, especially its department of so-called dynamic geology (the study of forces, the action of which caused and causes the origin and change of rocks and the formation of the earth's surface ), enters the field of physical geography and even takes its place. The history of science shows us that geography began to study many physical-geographical issues earlier than geology. We find attempts to study these issues already in Vareny, Riccioli and others in the 17th century, in Thorburn Bergman, G. Forster, Saussure, etc. at the end of the 18th century, in Al. Humboldt, Schmidt, F. Hoffmann, Studer, Berghaus - in the first third of this century. But then geographers become interested in the connection between geography and cultural history, while geologists, especially under the influence of Lyell, Murchison, Forbes and others, begin to diligently study the forces currently operating and changing the earth's surface in order to find an explanation for the phenomena that caused the gradual formation of the earth's crust , changes in the boundaries and outlines of ancient land and sea, sedimentation, eruption of plutonic rocks, changes in climate and the organic world, etc. Geologists include in their science “all qualities, manifestations of forces and conditions of the globe, as far as they can be the subject of direct or mediocre knowledge." Nauman included in geology, in addition to geognosy and geogeny, also geodesy, geodynamics, geophysics, hydrography and meteorology. Kredler, in addition to petrography, petrogeny, stratigraphy, historical and dynamic geology, also accepts “physiographic geology,” the object of which is the study of the shape, size and type of the Earth’s surface and its physical relationships. However, this program was never actually implemented; about the limits of geology - see Geology.

There are issues that are equally important for physical geography and geology (for example, orography), and it must be admitted that the work of geographers and geologists can only replenish and illuminate themselves mutually. If for a geologist it is essential to have a thorough acquaintance with the map of the country and its geographical features, then for a geographer it is also inevitable to become familiar with the most important facts of the past of this country, with the distribution of the rocks and soils that form its surface, with the participation of tectonic and volcanic forces in the formation of this surface Earth.

It is necessary to dwell a little more on the term geophysics, with which Gerland replaces the name “physical geography”. This term came into use relatively recently, namely in the sixties, when it was used by Mury (M ü hry). Later it was adopted by Zoeprits in his reports on the successes of physical geology, published in Geograph. Jahrbuch. Finally, in modern times Professor Günther used it for the title of his extensive manual: “Lehrbuch der Geophysik und physikalischen Geographie” (). The preface to it says, however, that the names “physical geography, geophysics, physics of the Earth” are essentially synonymous. However, Gunter also admits some difference between the concepts of “geophysics” and “physical geography” - the first name is suitable, in his opinion, more to that department of geographical science that considers the Earth as a whole, as a world body, especially in its internal properties, while the name “physical geography” is more appropriate when it comes to the study of the earth’s surface. In accordance with this, Gunther calls “geophysics in the narrow sense” that department of physical geology, which includes consideration of the internal heat of the Earth, guesses about the composition and state of the Earth’s core, and the study of volcanic and seismic phenomena, and he identifies this department with dynamic geology, which, however, as is known, it is understood by geologists in a much broader sense. Richthofen is also inclined to call that department of general geoscience geophysics, adding to it the study of the density of the Earth, the influences of earthly and cosmic gravity, magnetic forces, etc. G. Wagner also agrees with this distinction. Richthofen notes that geophysics is being developed through the combined efforts of astronomers, geologists and geographers. Geophysics could include the study of seismic phenomena in general and even all meteorology. Thus, geophysics could include: studies on the exact shape of the geoid (changes in gravity, ocean levels, tides) and on deviations in its rotational movement; the doctrine of terrestrial magnetism (which some geographers, for example, Zupan, completely separate from physical geology due to the fact that magnetic phenomena do not interact with others and do not have a noticeable influence on them); meteorology and seismology. All these branches of knowledge, which require careful observations with the help of various precision instruments and special observatories and are more or less suitable for mathematical processing, are able to develop, so to speak, in addition to geometry proper; Nevertheless, we do not separate geophysics from geophysics in the broad sense of the word (see below).

In general, we can say that G. in her modern development is not a strictly closed science, but is a complex of a number of sciences, each capable of being developed on its own. In this respect, however, G. does not represent anything exceptional; many other branches of knowledge also split up over time into a number of separate sciences. G. represents a complex of at least seven sciences, which can be listed in this order: 1) astronomical, or mathematical, G., closely related to astronomy and geodesy and providing the basis for cartographer, that is, the art of compiling and drawing maps in various projections; 2) geophysics, or physics of the globe, related to physics, astronomy and partly geology; 3) physical G., decaying into a) orography, closely related to some departments of geology, b) oceanography and c) climatology, based on meteorology, but whose task is not so much the analysis of thermal, light and electrical phenomena, but rather the synthesis of data to characterize climatic differences on the earth's surface; 4) biological G.: a) G. plants and b) G. animals(both of these branches are closely related to botany and zoology and are developed mainly by specialists in these sciences); 5) anthropogeography based, on the one hand, on physical and biological data, and on the other, on data from anthropology, ethnography, statistics, and history; all the last three departments (3, 4, 5) together constitute the so-called “general geography”; 6) private G., or regional studies, that is, the study of individual countries in relation to the three departments of “general geoscience” just mentioned; 7) history G. both in the sense of spatial expansion of information about the earth’s surface, and the development of geographical concepts and views. In this list we did not include sciences that are more or less in contact with geography, but pursue their own special tasks, such as, for example, astronomy (although some facts from it that are not directly related to the Earth continue to be cited in many geographical manuals and textbooks) or anthropology, ethnography, statistics, although data from these sciences are often also introduced into geography and although geographers sometimes take an active part in their processing (we point out, for example, works on ethnography by Peschel and Ratzel, ethnographic reviews by Herland, statistical . Wagner, etc.). In essence, however, these sciences, as having their own goals and methods, can be and are indeed developed separately from geography, and therefore should not be combined or confused with it.

The disintegration of geography into various departments, processed more or less independently, is noticeable not only in Germany, where geoscience now ranks highest, being represented by a number of departments at universities, many famous scientists, exemplary textbooks, journals, observatories, cartographic institutes, etc. etc., - but also in other European countries, where, however, the various departments of G. managed to demarcate without entering into methodological wrangles, on which a lot of money was spent recent years a lot of effort on the part of German geographers. Thus, in England, a school of geophysicists has long been isolated, one of the prominent representatives of which is currently J. Darwin; on the other hand, there were also a number of geologists who provided significant services to orography, several specialist hydrographers (for example, Buchanan), meteorologists and, finally, a number of geographers themselves who, following Ritter, allow for the significant participation of the anthropogeographical element (for example, D. Freshfield , Keltie, Mackinder, etc.). In France, where cartography, physics of the Earth, meteorology, history of geosciences, etc. have long been isolated, geology itself always maintains a close connection between the physical-geographical element and the anthropogeographical element; best example El can serve this purpose. Reclus, who, having published a wonderful essay on physical geography for his time (La Terre), began to present the geography of individual countries (Géographie Universelle), in which he gave excellent examples of how a geographer should combine the latest physical data on the earth’s surface with bio- and anthropogeographical data. It is interesting that the best representatives of G. in France, for example, Vivien de St. Martin, Levasseur, etc., in their geographical works even give preference to the historical and statistical elements.

The complexity of geographical science, which requires the assistance of various specialties, is clearly confirmed by geographical congresses, at which astronomers, physicists, geologists, ethnographers, statisticians, etc. present alongside geographers; then geographical yearbooks and magazines, which contain on their pages articles and reviews on various branches of knowledge that are more or less closely related to geography; finally, projects for the founding of special geographical institutes for higher teaching of geography in its entirety - projects that appeared over lately both in Italy, and in France, and here in Russia (a project of the Imperial Geographical Society and a project for the founding of a special department at St. Petersburg University). Leaving even such grandiose plans aside, one cannot but admit that geography, for the purpose of more rational higher teaching, should be represented by at least two departments: one, which could be given the name geophysics, which would require special physical and mathematical training and which would be connected with a well furnished and adapted geophysical observatory; and the other - geography, i.e. general geosciences and private geography of individual countries. This department requires special natural history and geographical training and assumes a certain familiarity with cartography, the history of geosciences and sciences auxiliary to anthropogeography; it should be equipped with a geographical office with a sufficient number of maps, books, magazines and other aids for desk study and excursions. One of the most important tasks of a geographer should be the development of the geography of individual countries, which is unthinkable without a thorough acquaintance with general geoscience, which in turn is closely related to the successes of private geography. The connection between general and specific geosciences, obvious in itself, is confirmed by the example of Western universities - especially the best established ones, German ones - in which "L änd erdkunde" is developed and read by the same professors who teach "Allgemeine Erdkunde". The isolation of geophysics is expressed in the fact that courses in its departments (for example, meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, etc.) are taught by other specialists in more or less connection with physics courses. The study and teaching of specific geography also presupposes a more or less broad assumption of the human element, as we see in the best synthetic works of foreign geographers and as Professor Zupan specifically insisted on this recently. The development of private geography requires no less attention, critical tact, and observation and can bring even more direct benefits in clarifying some practical life issues.

Literature: A) Astronomical geography: Scharngorst, “Initial foundations of astronomy and mathematical geography” (St. Petersburg, ); Günther, "Handbuch der mathem. Geographie"; By cartography: Zö pprits "Leitfaden der Kartenentwurfslehre" (); Struve, "Landkarten" (). - B) Geophysics: Günther, "Lehrbuch der Geophysik" (2 B-de, , with extensive literary references); By meteorology: Bebber, "Lehrbuch der Meteorologie" (), according to seismology: De Rossi, "La Meteorologia endogena" (1879-82); Milne, "Earthquakes" (). - IN) General Geography: Hann, Hochstetter und Pokorny, "Unser Wissen von der Erde, Allgemeine Erdkunde" (ed. Kirchhoff, ); Supan, "Grundz ü ge der phys. Erdkunde" (); Klöden, “Physical Geography” ( , obsolete); Berghaus, "Physikalischer Atlas" (new ed., 1889-92). - A) Physical Geography: Gü nther, "Lehrbuch der physik. Geographie" (); Peschel-Leipoldt, "Phys. Erdkunde" (1884-85); Reclus, "La terre" (obsolete). - α) Orography: Sonklar, "Allgem. Orographie" (, obsolete); Mushketov, “Physical Geology” (1888-91); v. Richthofen, "F ührer für die Forschungsreisenden"; Neumayr, "Erdgeschichte" (Bd. I, ); Süss, "Das Antlitz der Erde" ( , ff.) - β) Oceanography: Krümmel, "Der Ocean" (); Thoulet, "Oceanographie" ( .); Boguslavsky und Krümmel, "Handb. d. Oceanographie". - γ) Climatology: Voeikov, “Climates of the Globe” () and his: “Die Klimate der Erde” (); his: “Snow cover” (); Hann, "Handb. der Klimatologie". - b) Biogeography. - α) plant geography: Drude, "Handb. der Pflanzengeographie"; β) Geography of animals: Wallace, "Geographie Distribution of Animals" and others - c) anthropogeography: Ratzel, "Antropogeographie". - G) Private geography, or regional studies: Reclus, "Nouv. Gé ographie universelle", 17 volumes (11 editions in Russian translation so far); "Unser Wissen von der Erde", Bd. II and III. "Länderkunde", ed. Kirchoff (Europe); popular: De Varigny, "Nouv. G éographie moderne" (1890-91). History of Geography: Peschel, "Geschichte der Erdkunde (2nd ed.); Oppel, "Terra incognita" (); Vivien de St. Martin, "Historie de la gé graphie" with atlas; according to geography among the ancients: Beyer, "Gesch. d. wiss. Erdkunde der Griechen" (1887-91, 3rd issue, unfinished); Bunbury, "History of anc. Geography" (); according to medieval: Kretschmer, "Die phys. Erdkunde im christl. Mittelalter" (); for the Middle Ages and the Age of Discovery: S. Ruge, "Gesch. d. Zeitalters der Entdekungen" (); on the discovery of America: Cronau, "America. Die Geschichte seiner Entdeckung" (); S. Ruge, "Ch. Columbus" (); Fiske, "The Discovery of America" ​​(Moscow, vol. I); Winsor, "Ch. Columbus" (); XVI century: Nordenskiöld, "Facsimile Atlas" (); Gallois, "Les Géographes allemands de la Renaissance" (). - E) Atlases: Stieler's "Hand-Atlas" (, 95 cards); Schrader, Prudent et Anthome, "Atlas de géographie moderne" (1890-91); pocket atlases: German Habenicht "a, English Bartolomew (); Russian atlases of Ilyin and Linberg; Berghaus, "Chart of the World" (updated). - F) Geogr. dictionaries:"Nouv. Dictionnaire de géo graphie moderne et ancienne" p. Vivien de St. Martin, vol. 5 (not finished); Metzger, "Geogr.-stat. Welt-Lexicon (); Embacher, "Lexikon der Reisen und Entdeckungen (); Egli, "Nomina geographica" (

More primitive people began to accumulate knowledge about what surrounds them. As humanity developed, this knowledge became more and more abundant. People sought to understand the world around them as deeply as possible. Gradually, various sciences arose and began to develop. Some of them explore nature, others - the lives of people, their spiritual world, history, culture, and economics.

In the old days, nature was called “nature”. Therefore, the sciences of nature received the general name natural sciences. They study a variety of bodies, substances and natural phenomena. Any object, any living creature can be called a body. Substances are what bodies are made of. And phenomena, as you already know, are any changes that occur in nature.

Let's get acquainted with the basic sciences of nature.

Astronomy

The name of this science comes from the Greek words “astron” - “star”, “nomos” - “law”.

Astronomy is the science of celestial bodies: their origin, structure, composition, movement in outer space.

The world of celestial bodies, perhaps, seems to us a particularly mysterious part of nature. And probably everyone, more than once peering into the distant, mesmerizing starry sky, felt themselves, all people and the whole Earth as a small part of a huge, vast world - the Universe. Astronomy has already revealed many mysteries of the Universe and continues to unravel them, striking people’s imagination with new discoveries.

Physics

Translated from Greek language the word “physis” means . "nature" is calling.

Physics is a science that studies various natural phenomena.

We often encounter many of these phenomena in everyday life. For example, the movement of bodies, changes that occur with bodies when heated and cooled, electricity, sound, light. It is physics that answers the questions of why lightning flashes and thunder roars, how an echo occurs, what a rainbow is... But physics not only explains what can be seen in nature. It is the basis of technology. Without knowledge of physics it is impossible to create a car, an airplane, a refrigerator, or crane, nor a computer. It is difficult to even imagine what our life would be like if the science of physics did not exist.

Chemistry

The origin of the name of this science is not precisely known, perhaps from the Greek word “himeusis” - “mixing”.

Chemistry is the science of substances and their transformations.

You already know that bodies are made of substances. Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, sugar, starch, table salt are all examples of substances. There are a lot of them known now - several million. Each substance has its own properties. Under certain conditions, others can arise from one substance. There is no miracle or magic in such transformations. Thanks to chemistry, people have learned to obtain in laboratories and chemical plants those substances that are needed in the household and in everyday life.

Geography

This is another earth science. Its name comes from the Greek words “geo” - “earth”, “grapho” - “writing”, i.e. “land description”.

Indeed, geography describes our planet: what oceans and continents are there, seas, lakes and rivers, lowlands, hills and mountains, what countries, cities and villages arose on Earth, what is the life and economy of the peoples inhabiting our planet. Geography studies many questions. As you can see, they concern not only nature, but also life, economic activity people. You will learn about what main sections geography is divided into and what they study, as well as what geographical sciences exist, from the next paragraph.

Biology

Translated from Greek, the word “bios” means “life”, “logos” means “science, teaching”.

Biology is the science of living nature.

It is impossible to imagine our planet without living things. A variety of creatures - bacteria, protozoa, fungi, plants, animals - inhabited the oceans and land, plains and mountains, soil and even deep, mysterious caves. We ourselves are part of living nature. Biology answers many questions: what living beings are on Earth and how many there are, how a living body is structured and works, how organisms reproduce and develop, how they are connected to each other and to inanimate nature.

Ecology

The name of this science comes from the Greek words “ekos” - “house”, “logos” - “science, teaching”.

Ecology is the science of the relationships of organisms with each other and with their environment, of the interaction between man and nature.

Ecology arose as a part of biology, but now it is increasingly spoken of as an independent science - the science of the natural home of humanity. The word “ecology” is often heard on radio, television, and appears in newspapers. This is because our natural home is in danger. To save it, every person should be at least a little familiar with the environment.

People have always sought to understand the world around them. Gradually, various sciences arose and began to develop. The sciences of nature are called natural sciences. They study a variety of bodies, substances and natural phenomena. The basic natural sciences include astronomy, physics, chemistry, geography, biology, geology, and ecology. Astronomy is the science of celestial bodies. Physics examines various natural phenomena. Chemistry is the science of substances and their transformations. Geography studies our planet. Biology is the science of living nature. Ecology is the science of the relationships of organisms with each other and with their environment, of the interaction between man and nature.

1. What is the common name for the natural sciences?
2. What are bodies, substances and natural phenomena? Give examples of bodies and substances that you encounter in everyday life.
3. List the natural sciences you know.
4. What does each of the natural sciences study (astronomy, physics, chemistry, geography, biology, ecology)?
5. The great English scientist Isaac Newton wrote: “I don’t know about others, but I feel like a child who wanders all day at the water’s edge, finding now a shell, now a wave-polished pebble, while the vast ocean of truth stretches out before him, boundless, unexplored.” How do you explain these words?

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From the Greek words “astron” - star, “nomos” - law). This is the science of celestial bodies. She studies their structure, composition, movement in outer space, and origin.

From the Greek word "physis" - nature. Studies a variety of natural phenomena, many of which we often encounter in everyday life. For example, the movement of bodies, changes that occur with bodies when heated and cooled, electricity, sound, light. It is physics that answers the questions of why lightning flashes and thunder roars, how echoes arise, what a rainbow is...

From the Greek word "himeusis" - mixing. The science of substances, their properties and transformations. You already know that bodies are made of substances. Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, sugar, starch, table salt are all examples of substances. There are now a lot of them known - several million. Thanks to chemistry, people have learned to obtain in laboratories and chemical plants those substances that are needed in the household and in everyday life.

From the Greek words “geo” - earth, “logos” - science, teaching. The science of the Earth, its shape, structure, composition and development. Certain branches of geology study rocks, minerals, fossil remains of organisms, and movements of the earth's crust. Without geology, it is impossible to search for mineral deposits.

From the Greek words “geo” - earth, “grapho” - write. This is another science about the earth (“geographic description”). Indeed, geography describes our planet: what oceans and continents are there, seas, lakes and rivers, lowlands, hills and mountains, what countries, cities and villages arose on Earth, what is the life and economy of the families inhabiting our planet...

From the Greek words “bios” - life, “logos” - science, teaching. This is the science of living nature. A variety of creatures - bacteria, simple fungi, plants, animals - have populated the oceans and land, plains and mountains, soil and even deep, mysterious caves. Biology answers the questions: what living beings are on Earth and how many there are, how a living body is structured and works, how living organisms reproduce and develop, how they are connected to each other and inanimate nature.

The first ideas about the earth's surface were among primitive hunters and gatherers. Passing on information about the world around them to future generations, ancient people left drawings on stone and bone, on tree bark and animal skins. This is how the initial foundations of geographical knowledge were laid.

Birth of Earth Science

Geography is one of ancient sciences. Its name comes from two Greek words: geo - Earth, grapho - write (description). Having emerged in ancient times, geography at first really had a descriptive character. Travelers and sailors, generals and traders took scientists with them to compile descriptions of new lands and peoples. The Greek scientist Eratosthenes, more than 2200 years ago, first collected these descriptions into a scientific work on the nature of the Earth and called it “Geography”.

About 500 years ago - during the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries - geography was the queen of sciences for two centuries. Monarchs and wealthy merchants personally discussed plans for future expeditions with geographers and generously financed their travel in the hope of obtaining untold treasures. In a short historical period, most of the oceanic spaces and inhabited lands appeared on the world map. At this time, geography was a collection of a wide variety of information. She gave answers to the questions “what is this?” and “where is it located?”, indicating the location of various objects on the surface of the Earth. However, even in the 18th century, the Arctic, Australia, and many inland areas of the continents remained white spots on the maps.

But as geography developed, its main task became the study of the laws by which our planet lives and develops. Geography began to transform from a descriptive discipline into a science that answers the question “why?” To do this, geographers needed to understand and explain the reasons for the appearance and changes of objects and natural phenomena.

Geographical Sciences

Modern geography is a complex branched system, or “tree” of sciences. Geography is the only science that unites diverse (knowledge about nature and people. All geographical objects and phenomena created by nature are studied by physical geography. Population and objects created by human activity are studied by social geography. One of the most important tasks of modern geographical science in general is the study of diverse interaction between nature and society to solve global (world) problems facing humanity, for example, the problem of providing the population with food, natural resources, including fuel and water. The tasks of exploring the World Ocean and space occupy a special place among the geographical sciences. about geographical maps. Closely related to geography is the related science of geology.

Geographers today are specialists in many professions. The waters of the land are studied by a hydrologist, the ice by a glaciologist, the irregularities of the Earth's surface by animals and flora planets - biotheographer. Geoecologists predict the consequences of human impact on nature. The system of geographical sciences also includes disciplines of a practical nature, such as medical and military geography.

Paleontology, title- The word paleontology comes from three Greek words: ancient, being and doctrine. Thus, in an exact translation into Russian, this term means: the science of ancient creatures.

Paleontology is the science of organisms that existed in past (geological) times. Since the main natural material for paleontological research is fossil remains or fossils, paleontology is often defined as the science of the fossil remains of organisms.

The term “paleontology” was proposed by the famous French scientist Blainville (N. M. Ducrotay de Blainville) in 1825 in his great work “Guide to Malacology and Conchiliology.” He, in his words, created this word “to denote the science that deals with the study of fossil organic bodies.” At first, few scientists used this term; it became widely known only after the famous naturalist, professor at Moscow University G.I. Fischer von Waldheim advocated replacing the term “pegromatognosy,” which he had previously designated “the study of fossil organic bodies,” with the term “paleontology.” In 1834, G.I. Fisher’s book “Bibliographia paleonthologica animatium systematica” was published in Moscow, where such a replacement is justified by the fact that, on the one hand, “it is desirable to include geological principles in this teaching,” and on the other, that “he equally needs zoological and zootomic concepts.”

The word “paleontology,” according to G.I. Fischer, “better expresses and combines these two conditions” than “petromatognosy.” Fischer began using the term “paleontology” in lectures he gave to students at Moscow University, as well as in his subsequent works. He contributed so much to the rooting of this term in scientific literature that he is often considered the author of the latter. Thus, the author of the first major reference guide to paleontology, the famous German scientist K. Zittel, in his major work “History of Geology and Paleontology before late XIX V" claimed that this name was introduced in the early 30s. last century “almost simultaneously” by Blainville and G.I. Fischer von Waldheim, and this mistake is repeatedly repeated in the specialized literature to this day. For example, the English scientist Stubblefield recently wrote that “The term paleontology has existed since 1834, when it was used by both Blainville and Fischer von Waldheim” (Stubblefield, 1954).
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