Life of the ancient Romans. Roman manners, way of life and everyday life. Initiation into adults

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Moscow City Psychological and Pedagogical University

Faculty of Foreign Languages

Abstract in Latin

Topic: Life of the ancient Romans

Work completed:

Zakharova N.V

Checked work:

Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor Zubanova S.G.

Moscow 2011

Introduction

2. Marriage

3. The birth of a child

4. Education

5. Clothes. Hairstyles. Makeup

6. Daily routine

7. Slavery

8. Religion

9. Cult of the Dead

10. Leisure time of the Romans

11. Dwelling

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Ancient Rome (lat. Roma antiqua) - one of the leading civilizations of the Ancient World and antiquity, got its name from the main city (Roma), in turn named after the legendary founder - Romulus. The center of Rome developed within the swampy plain, bounded by the Capitol, the Palatine and the Quirinal. The culture of the Etruscans and the ancient Greeks had a certain influence on the formation of the ancient Roman civilization. Ancient Rome reached its peak of power in the 2nd century AD. e., when under his control was the area from modern Scotland in the north to Ethiopia in the south and from Armenia in the east to Portugal in the west.

The Roman Empire is the greatest empire of ancient times. The people who filled it are admirable, which is why I took the topic of my essay such as "Life of the Ancient Romans." I believe that this topic is very relevant today, because our life has many similarities with the life of the ancient Romans. Many laws have passed from them to us, jurisprudence began in ancient Rome. Many literary monuments became an inspiration for our writers. The way of life, the relationship between men and women, fathers and children in ancient Rome has much in common with relationships in our century.

And so, to achieve this goal, I had to solve the following tasks:

1. Find out how the wedding ceremony took place among the Romans;

2. What did the family mean in the life of an ancient Roman;

3. Learn about the relationship between parents and children

4. Consider education methods

5. Lifestyle: food, free time, housing

Family and upbringing in the early period of the history of Rome was considered the goal and the main essence of the life of a citizen - the presence of his own home and children, while family relations were not subject to law, but were regulated by tradition. In what ancient state did such principles operate?

In ancient Rome, the family was highly respected as the basis of society. The family was supposed to be the guardian of high moral standards and what was called "fatherly mores."

The authority of the father of the family, his power over his wife and children were indisputable. He was a stern judge of all the offenses committed by the household and was considered the head of the family court. He had the right to take his son's life or sell him into slavery, but in practice this was an exceptional phenomenon. And although the woman was subordinate to the man, “belonged only to the family and did not exist for the community,” in rich families she was given an honorary position, she was engaged in managing the household.

Unlike the Greek women, the Roman women could freely appear in society, travel to visit, attend solemn receptions, and, despite the fact that the father had the highest power in the family, they were protected from his arbitrariness. A man, a husband, was allowed to file for divorce in case of infidelity or infertility of his wife. Moreover, the fact that the spouse went out into the street with her head uncovered (usually a married woman used various ribbons and scarves) could already be infidelity, since by doing so (it was believed) she was specifically looking for male views.

A woman could be beaten to death or thirsty if she was caught drinking wine, as they were forbidden to drink it (so as not to harm the conception of a child). Adultery was severely punished in ancient Rome, but in connection with divorces and widowhood, and often a large difference in the age of the spouses, adultery and extramarital cohabitation occurred. In the case of the capture of a wife's lover, according to an unwritten law, the husband, along with his slaves, had the right to commit all kinds of violence against him, including sexual ones. Often the poor man's nose and ears were cut off, but this was nothing compared to the fate that awaited the delinquent wife. She was simply buried alive in the ground.

During the absence of the spouse, the wife should not have been locked up. Walking around the trading shops and gossip with sellers and counter acquaintances was considered a favorite female pastime. The wife was also always present next to her husband at all receptions.

The law prescribed humanity in relation to relatives and neighbors. Among the many maxims with which the Romans enriched us, there is this one: "He who beats his wife or child, he raises his hand to the highest shrine." The children were very devoted to their parents.

2. Marriage

The Romans distinguished between full marriage and incomplete marriage. The first was possible only between Roman citizens and allowed two forms: the wife either passed into the power of her husband and was called "mother of the family", matron, or she still remained in the power of her father and was called only "uxor" (wife, wife). The fathers of families, as a rule, entered into marriages between their children, guided by prevailing moral standards and personal considerations. A father could marry a girl from the age of 12, and marry a young man from the age of 14.

The wedding date was chosen taking into account religious traditions and holidays, beliefs in happy and unlucky days, therefore, it never took place on kalends, the first days of each month, nona, the 7th day of March, May, July, October and the 5th day of other months , ides, days in the middle of the month. The whole of March, dedicated to Mars, the god of war, was considered unfavorable, since "spouses should not fight", May, which fell on the Lemurian holiday, and the first half of June, busy with work to restore order and cleanliness in the temple of Vesta. The days of commemoration of the dead, like days of sadness and mourning, were also not suitable for a wedding, as were the days when the mundus was opened - the entrance to the underworld: August 24, September 5 and October 8. The second half of June was considered favorable.

On the evening before the wedding, the girl sacrificed her old toys and children's clothes to the larams (home gods), thereby saying goodbye to childhood. On the eve of the wedding, the bride tied her head with a red scarf and put on her a long straight white tunic with a woolen belt (Latin tunica recta), which was also intended for the wedding day. A belt made of sheep's wool (Latin cingillum) was tied with a double Hercules knot, which was supposed to prevent misfortune. The bride's hair was also styled the night before with a spear tip in 5 strands. It was the tip of the spear that was used, perhaps as a symbol of home and family law, or because the matrons were under the tutelage of Juno Kurita, "who was named so from the spear she carried, which is called curis in the language of the Sabines, or because it foreshadowed the birth of brave husbands ; or that, by virtue of marriage law, the bride is placed under the authority of her husband, since the spear is both the best kind of weapon and the symbol of supreme power. Then the hair was fastened with woolen threads and gathered in a cone shape.

The bride's wedding attire was a long dress - palla (lat. palla gelbeatica), bright red, worn over a tunic. A veil of fiery, yellow-red color was thrown over the head, lowering it a little over the face, and since the time of the late republic, they put on a wreath of flowers (vervain and marjoram, later from orange tree and myrtle flowers), collected by the bride herself. The shoes had to be the same color as the flammeum.

Jewelry was primarily a bracelet. There is no information about the special attire for the groom; perhaps he wore an ordinary white toga and a wreath (according to Greek tradition). The houses of the bride and groom were decorated with wreaths, green branches, ribbons and colored carpets. On the morning of the wedding day, the procession led by the steward (Latin pronuba), a woman who served as an example for the bride, since she was married only once, was heading to the temple or home atrium .

The couple was brought to the altar, on which a pig (rarely a sheep or an ox) was sacrificed in order to find out from the gods from the insides whether the marriage would be happy. If the prediction was successful, then the person conducting the auspices gave his consent to the marriage. After the marriage ceremony, a plentiful feast began. In the evening after the feast, the girl finally left her parents: the ceremony of "removal" began - seeing the bride to the groom's house. The bride was "kidnapped" in memory of ancient traditions: "pretend that the girl is kidnapped from the arms of her mother, and if the mother is not there, then the closest relative."

Wedding custom: the groom carries the bride across the threshold of his house, a custom dating back to the time of the abduction of the Sabine women. The bride was led by the hands of two boys, the third carried a torch of thorns in front of her, which was lit from the fire on the hearth of the bride's house. A spinning wheel and a spindle were carried behind the bride, as symbols of women's activities in the husband's house. Nuts were handed out (thrown) to passers-by as a sign of fertility, which were supposed to provide the new family with plentiful offspring. The husband carried his wife over the threshold of the new house so that the wife would not stumble over him, which was considered a bad sign.

After that, the wife wrapped the door frame in wool and greased it (according to Pliny the Elder, wolf fat was used, as a memory of the she-wolf who nursed Romulus and Remus) and oil, which, perhaps, was supposed to scare away evil spirits on the first night. The guests left and continued to celebrate elsewhere. The wife was undressed by women who had only been married once and taken to her husband's bed. The husband met his wife with fire and water (mainly with a torch and a goblet of water), the wife said the words: lat. Ubi tu Gaius, ego Gaia - "Where you are Gaius, I will be Gaia." Perhaps earlier this formula meant that the woman took the name of her husband, or became, as it were, a part of him.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Moscow City Psychological and Pedagogical University

Faculty of Foreign Languages

Abstract in Latin

Topic: Life of the ancient Romans

Work completed:

Zakharova N.V

Checked work:

Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor Zubanova S.G.

Moscow 2011

Introduction

2. Marriage

3. The birth of a child

4. Education

5. Clothes. Hairstyles. Makeup

6. Daily routine

7. Slavery

8. Religion

9. Cult of the Dead

10. Leisure time of the Romans

11. Dwelling

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

And so, to achieve this goal, I had to solve the following tasks:

1. Find out how the wedding ceremony took place among the Romans;

2. What did the family mean in the life of an ancient Roman;

3. Learn about the relationship between parents and children

4. Consider education methods

5. Lifestyle: food, free time, housing

In ancient Rome, the family was highly respected as the basis of society. The family was supposed to be the guardian of high moral standards and what was called "fatherly mores."

2. Marriage

The wife was seated on a chair in front of the door, then prayers were said again, this time to the deities of the house. Then the wife took over fire and water as the two main elements of the household and gave three coins for it. One of them was received by the husband, the other was left for home chests on the altar, and the third was left later for the communal chests at the crossroads. In bed, the husband symbolically untied the belt on his tunic, tied with a Hercules knot, so that he would have as many children as Hercules.

3. The birth of a child

The celebrations associated with the appearance of a new family member began on the eighth day after childbirth and lasted three days. Children at birth, according to the agreed ritual, descended to the ground, and then the father (in case of recognition of the newborn) raised him high to the sky if it was a boy or gave it to his mother if it was a girl. If the father did not recognize the child, he gave a sign to the midwife, and she cut the umbilical cord above the required place, which led to bleeding and death of the newborn. Sometimes he was put outside the gates of the house or simply drowned in the river. A similar treatment for people from the lower class was caused by the difficulty of feeding a large number of mouths. The rich Romans preferred to have one boy heir in order to provide him with the best education and avoid disputes when receiving an inheritance.

After that, the invited guests gave the baby gifts, usually amulets, the purpose of which was to protect the child from evil spirits. It was not necessary to register a child for a long time. Only when a Roman came of age and put on a white toga did he become a citizen of the Roman state. He was presented before officials and entered into the list of citizens. For the first time, registration of newborns was introduced at the dawn of a new era by Octavian August, obliging citizens to register a baby within 30 days from the moment of birth. Registration of children was carried out in the temple of Saturn, where the office of the governor and the archive were located. This confirmed the name of the child, his date of birth. His free origin and the right of citizenship were confirmed.

4. Education

Like the Greeks, the Romans affirmed the priority of upbringing and education. The spirit and history of Roman society demanded that the young Roman had a courageous, strong body, possessed the will and the habit of unquestioningly obeying the laws. In severe trials, a citizen should not lose heart.

Upbringing and education were private. Wealthy parents preferred homeschooling. At home, education was carried out by a slave, who was called a "teacher". And the poor used the services of schools. The heads of the family, taking care of the education of their children, tried to hire Greek teachers for their children or to get a Greek slave to teach. The vanity of parents forced them to send their children to Greece for higher education. Boys and girls began to be taught from the age of seven. School education was usually built on three main steps.

Primary School. At the first stages of education, children were mainly taught to write and count, they were given information about history, law and literary works. Here the teacher was often a freedman or citizen from the lower strata of society. At first, the students were offered passages from the laws, which were memorized mechanically.

The primary school was poor: it was a room in which there were only a table and benches. Sometimes the lesson was transferred to the open air, the teacher, along with the children, could go out of town or to the park. For writing, a tablet was used, smeared with wax, on which words and sentences were written with a stick with a pointed end, called a stylus.

School of Literacy. The second stage of schooling continued in the literacy school and covered children from about 12-13 to 16 years old. It was already a more well-equipped room, in which there were busts and bas-reliefs of famous poets, as well as paintings, mainly on the plots of Homer's poems. The main attention of this school was given to reading and interpretation of poetic texts. Teaching was conducted in Latin. Greek authors were read in translations, in many respects imperfect. When the Greek language was introduced in schools, Homer, Hesiod, Menander were read, albeit in extracts, but already in the original. We also met with Roman authors - Virgil, Horace, Ovid. Grammar, comments and criticism of the text, versification and literature proper were studied as philological subjects. biographies of writers, their works. In the classroom, most often the speech of the teacher sounded, the students tried only to write down what they heard. As for non-humanitarian subjects, such as mathematics and geometry, they were usually mastered in an insignificant and primitive volume.

Third level school. Having reached the age of 16, the young man entered the school of the third stage, to the rhetor, who was charged with preparing the student for the activities of a judicial or political speaker (although this did not apply to all students, because at the age of 17-18 the young man had to leave the teaching and pass military service). Usually students had to compose essays in the form of speeches, developing in them some famous literary or mythological episode. It could be the speech of Medea, who intended to kill her children, Achilles, pouring out anger at Agamemnon, who took away his captive Briseis.

The students were asked to compose an accusatory speech condemning any vice: stinginess, covetousness, sacrilege, etc. They were required to demonstrate the ability to convincingly pronounce what was written, show good diction and the art of gesticulation. A kind of tournaments were organized, competitions for novice speakers, which stimulated their zeal, striving for excellence.

The Romans also made sure that women were educated in connection with the role they had in the family: the organizer of family life and the educator of children at an early age. There were schools where girls studied with boys. And it was considered honorable if they said about a girl that she was an educated girl.

In the Roman state, already in the 1st century AD, they began to train slaves, as slaves and freedmen began to play an increasingly prominent role in the economy of the state. Slaves became managers in the estates and were engaged in trade, were placed overseers of other slaves. Literate slaves were attracted to the bureaucracy of the state, many slaves were teachers and even architects. Educated slaves were called the main value of the Roman rich man Mark Licinius Crassus. Former slaves, freedmen, gradually began to make up a significant stratum in Rome. Having nothing in their souls but a thirst for power and profit, they sought to take the place of an employee, manager in the state apparatus, engage in commercial activities, usury. Their advantage over the Romans began to manifest itself, which consisted in the fact that they did not shy away from any work, considered themselves disadvantaged and showed perseverance in the struggle for their place under the sun. In the end, they were able to achieve legal equality, to push the Romans out of government.

5. Clothes. Hairstyles. Makeup

The wives of noblemen devoted a lot of time to hair care and creating intricate hairstyles. And although in those days there were no hairdressing salons for women, they were successfully replaced by domestic slaves. For men, barber shops were open everywhere, where they could shave and cut their hair, as the etiquette of that time required. Roman women loved gold earrings, bracelets and necklaces with precious stones. Moreover, it was often possible to see several earrings at once in one ear, and even with huge stones. Thus, Roman matrons turned into mobile jewelry shops. The women carried a handbag, a fan and an umbrella. The Romans used a wide variety of cosmetics. They kept them in little pots and bottles. Especially at that time, strong pallor was fashionable. Women whitened their faces and hands with crushed chalk. Girls tinted their lips and blushed their cheeks with red wine sludge or a vegetable paint called focus, and Roman women lined their eyes and eyelids with soot or a special paint - antimony.

The clothes of the Romans were divided into two categories: upper ( amictus) and lower ( indutus). The main outerwear was the toga. She was the hallmark of a citizen; in view of this, during the time of the empire, exiles were forbidden to wear it; in the same way, a foreigner did not dare to put on a toga. The toga was also an obligatory costume in the theater, at public games, in court, during official ceremonies and at court. Initially, the toga fitted the body quite tightly, later it began to be worn much more freely. The toga worn by the children was bordered with a purple stripe, hence the name toga praetexta. The toga of a man, worn by a young man who had reached the age of majority, was pure white and without a border.

Paenula it was a sleeveless cloak that covered the body to the knees; a round hole was made in it at the neck, through which the paenula was put on. It was open on both sides, but sewn up at the front. It was both men's and women's clothing, which was sometimes worn even over a toga; it was usually made of woolen material.

Lacerna It was somewhat similar to the Greek chlamys: it was an oblong and open front robe, which was fastened with a clasp on the shoulder, and maybe on the chest. She was in great fashion during the empire; lacerna was often luxuriously finished. Sometimes, like paenula, a hood was attached to it in case of wind and rain.

The main undergarment was a tunic. It was light and comfortable and was worn under the toga in the days when the toga was worn only when leaving the house. The tunic was similar to a Greek chiton and reached the calves, but it was pulled together by a belt at the waist. At first it was sleeveless or short-sleeved; by the end of the second century AD, long-sleeved tunics began to be worn. Sometimes two, three and even four tunics were worn one on top of the other.

Women also wore a tunic: it was a tight-fitting shirt that reached to the knees, without sleeves and without a belt. At the height of the chest was placed a strip of thin and soft skin, which, like our corset, supported the chest. Pounced on the tunic stola, which can be compared with the long tunic of Greek women. When leaving the house, put on palla- a cloak like a himation. Previously, when they did not yet know palla, she was replaced by ricimum- a quadrangular cloak, shorter and with fewer folds.

The Romans usually went out with an open head, or else they were content to lift the toga on their heads. However, they had hats ( pileus And petasus), which were used not only by the common people, who spent most of their time working in the open, but also by people from high society. A hood was also used instead of a pileus ( cucullus), which was attached to the paenula or directly pounced on the shoulders.

The women did not wear hats; to cover their heads, they raised their palla, as the men with the toga did. The best cover for them was a veil fastened on the head and falling in folds on the back of the head and back. Mitra was a piece of matter that covered the head in the form of a cap; it usually reached only half of the head and left gracefully arranged hair open in front. Finally, the Roman women also used head nets ( reticulum).

Calceus shoes were called quite high and closed, like our shoes or boots. Together with the toga, she made up the national costume of a citizen, which he put on when going to the city. To show up in society otherwise shod was considered as indecent as, for example, to go out into the street in slippers. Calceus was also worn by women when leaving the house, as it was a common footwear for both sexes.

Solea And crepida are sandals, i.e. thick leather soles, sometimes with a slight rise in the back to protect the heel. They differed from each other, apparently, in that the solea straps covered only the foot, while the crepida straps rose above the ankle.

Pero coarse leather shoes, used mainly by peasants.

Finally, Caliga was the shoes of a warrior. It consisted of a thick sole, densely studded with sharp nails; a piece of leather, cut in stripes, was sewn to the sole, forming a kind of mesh around the heel and foot: the toes remained open.

6. Daily routine

The life of the Roman population was very diverse: the poor, enrolled in the lists of those receiving bread from the state, a praetorian or a fireman, an artisan, a client or a senator lived very differently. However, the daily routine was almost the same for the entire urban population: rising in the morning, busy time, rest in the middle of the day, hours spent in the bathhouse, entertainment.

Ancient Rome was on her feet with the dawn. Lamps gave more soot and fumes than light, so daylight was especially valued. To lie in bed when "the sun is high" was considered obscene (Seneca). The morning toilet for both the rich and the poor craftsman was equally simple: put on sandals on your feet, wash your face and hands, rinse your mouth and put on a raincoat if it's cold. For rich people who had their own barber, this was followed by a haircut and a shave.

Then the first breakfast was served, usually consisting of a piece of bread dipped in wine, smeared with honey or simply sprinkled with salt, olives and cheese. According to an old custom, all household members, including slaves, came to greet the owner. Then, according to the schedule, there were economic affairs, checking accounts and reports and issuing orders on current affairs. Then the reception of clients began, with a large number of them, it took about two hours. The clientele developed out of an ancient custom of placing oneself, a petty and powerless person, under the patronage of an influential person. By the 1st century AD, the "good tone" of society demanded: it was inconvenient for a noble person to appear on the street or in a public place without a crowd of customers surrounding him.

For all the services of the client, the patron paid sparingly, although at the same time everyone was informed that he showed a lot of care and attention towards the client. Clients most often could not get out of bitter need. The customer service gave, albeit meager, but still some means of livelihood. In Rome, for a man who did not own any trade and did not want to learn it, perhaps the only way to exist was the position of the client.

Back in the 1st century BC, the patron dined with his clients; later he invited only selected three or four people to the table, and paid the rest a very modest sum of 25 asses. And the client did not always receive this miserable amount, if the patron fell ill or pretended to be ill, the client left with nothing.

Dinner at the patron's, which every client dreamed of, often turned into a source of humiliation for him. As a rule, they arranged two very different dinners: one for themselves and their friends, the other for clients. The patron, according to Martial, eats oysters, champignons, flounder, fried turtle doves; the client is served edible shells, pork mushrooms, a small bream and a magpie that has died in a cage.

Noon was a line dividing the day into two parts: the time before it was considered the "best part of the day", which was devoted to studies, leaving, if possible, the second part for rest and entertainment. In the afternoon, a second breakfast is served. It is also modest: at Seneca it consisted of bread and dried figs, the emperor Marcus Aurelius added onions, beans and small salted fish to bread. Among the working people, beets served as a seasoning for bread; the son of wealthy parents, returning from school, received a slice of white bread, olives, cheese, dry figs and nuts. Then it was time for the afternoon rest.

After the midday rest, it was the turn of washing in the baths, gymnastic exercises, rest and walks. Baths opened in Rome at half past two in summer and half past one in winter.

Baths were a place of meetings and gatherings, fun games and sports joys. The rich turned their baths into real palaces. And the emperors not only strove for the artistic decoration of their baths, facing the walls with marble, covering the floors with mosaics and putting up magnificent columns: they collected works of art there. They came here not only to wash away the dirt. They rested here. Baths were of particular importance for the poor, crowded in dirty, stuffy rooms with a view of the dirty wall of the opposite house. The visitor found here a club, and a stadium, and a recreation garden, and a rich museum, and a library.

Then the whole family (not counting the small children who ate separately) gathered for dinner, to which one more friend was usually invited. Dinner was a small home feast. It was a time of friendly casual conversation, funny jokes and serious conversation. Reading at dinner in the circles of the Roman intelligentsia was a custom; for this, a special slave-reader was appointed. Sometimes in rich houses dinner was accompanied by music - these houses had their own musicians. Sometimes diners were entertained by dancers, but they were not allowed into strict houses.

During the day, food was usually taken three times: in the morning at about 9 o'clock there was ientaculum - a morning light snack; around noon prandium - breakfast and after 3 o'clock cena - dinner.

A more luxurious dinner, with invited guests, was called a convivium - a feast; religious feast - epulum, epilae.

Table

The dining room was called triclinium, from which it can be seen that they were reclining at the table. Initially, they ate in the atrium, sitting by the hearth. Only the father had the right to lie down; the mother sat at the foot of his bed, and the children were placed on the benches, sometimes at a special table, on which they were served small portions, and not from all the dishes; the slaves were in the same room on wooden benches, or they ate around the hearth; this was especially the case in the countryside. Later they began to organize special halls for dinner parties, in which, little by little, wives and children also took part. Since then, they began to interfere in the conversations of men, they were even allowed to eat lying down. In rich houses there were several canteens for different seasons. The winter triclinium was usually located on the lower floor; for the summer the dining room was moved to the upper floor, or the dining bed was placed under velum in the gazebo, under a canopy of greenery, in the yard or in the garden.

Tablecloths appeared only under the late empire. Treats were placed on the table in such a way that they could be put on a plate. The diner held the plate in his left hand; with his right he took the overlaid pieces, since there were no forks. Liquid food was eaten with spoons. Small pieces of shaggy linen cloth served as napkins, with which they wiped their hands and mouth, they were placed on the table for guests, but guests brought such napkins with them. It was customary to take home leftover treats from dinner, which they wrapped in their napkin.

The kitchen utensils were very varied and many of the kitchen utensils are similar to modern ones. The treat was served on the table in deep closed dishes or in bowls, individual dishes were placed on a large tray. Both dining room and kitchen utensils were earthenware. Even in the II century. BC. of silver at the table there was only a salt shaker, which was inherited from father to son. By the end of the period of the Republic, nothing remained of the ancient simplicity. Some even began to make kitchen utensils from silver. Guests came with their slaves, who stood or sat behind the host. He rendered various services to the owner and carried home a napkin with everything that the owner took from the table.

At the beginning of the meal, prayers were always offered to the gods. Immediately after dinner, during dessert, or a little later in the evening, there followed a drinking bout, during which they drank, talked and had fun. These drinking parties very soon took on the character of rough orgies. Rarely did any of its participants entertain themselves with a serious conversation. Usually at such a feast, singers, singers and all kinds of musicians appeared very soon. Sometimes the host read his poems or asked one of the guests to read his own poems. Comedians, mimes, jesters, conjurers, dancers and even gladiators were called in to amuse the audience; also played dice.

In the first centuries of the existence of Rome, the inhabitants of Italy ate mostly thick, hard-cooked porridge made from spelt, millet, barley or bean flour, but already at the dawn of Roman history, not only porridge was cooked in the household, but also bread cakes were baked. Culinary art began to develop in the III century. BC e. and under the empire reached unprecedented heights.

In addition to grains and legumes, vegetables and fruits, fermented milk products were also used. Meat was rarely eaten here. Usually, sick or old domestic animals unsuitable for work in the fields were slaughtered for this. In any case, the meat was very hard, it was rarely fried, but boiled for a long time in the broth. Bread and cereals were staples in the ancient world. Soups and porridges were prepared from them, such as maza - a mixture of flour, honey, salt, olive oil and water; turon - a mixture of flour, grated cheese and honey. Many foods were sprinkled with barley flour before cooking. Beans and other leguminous plants were abundantly used.

The national soup of the ancient Romans was borscht - a lot of cabbage and beets were grown especially for it. Even the great poet Horace considered the cultivation of cabbage his main business. Subsequently, this wonderful soup spread among many peoples of the world.

Breakfast and lunch passed very quickly, and dinner was given great attention. The whole family came to him. Typically, bean soup, milk, cheeses, fresh fruits, as well as green olives in brine and black olive paste were served. Subsequently, bread appeared on Roman tables, and lobsters and oysters appeared in wealthy families. Since beef was a rarity, game, frogs and snails were used in abundance.

There were three types of bread in ancient Rome. The first is black bread or panis plebeius, for the poor, the second is panis secundarius, white bread, but of poor quality. Often grain, flour or already baked bread were distributed to the population. The third is panis candidus - high quality white bread for the Roman nobility.

It should be noted that the bulk of the inhabitants of ancient Rome did not have the opportunities that rich Roman nobles had, so the plebeians most often bought food from itinerant sellers. Usually it was olives, fish in brine, a kind of barbecue from wild birds, boiled octopus, fruit and cheese. The poor man's lunch consisted of a piece of bread, small pieces of salted fish, water, or very cheap low-quality wine.

Those who could afford dined during the day in numerous taverns. An important role on the table of the ancient Romans was played by wine, which usually completed dinner. Both red and white varieties were produced. At that time, there were already various cooperatives for the production of this popular drink. Rome had a port with a neighboring market, where only one wine was sold. When served, it was usually diluted with water and consumed warm or cool, depending on the season. Wine with the addition of honey was used as an aperitif.

Food was usually cooked in clay pots, in bronze or lead pans, and the following methods were usually used to store food: smoking for cheeses, drying for meat, covering with honey for fruits. Subsequently, brines began to be used. I would like to note that salt in that period was mainly used as money, and it would never have occurred to anyone to salt any dish solely for taste. Salt was valued dearly, as it was used to preserve food on long trips or sea expeditions.

7. Slavery

Rome was a huge slave state. The treatment of slaves was very cruel. He could be sold, castrated, rented out to a brothel, turned into a gladiator, given to be torn to pieces by wild animals. The main slave owner was the Roman emperor, sometimes he allowed himself to appoint his former freed slaves to high government positions.

Slavery had two sources:

The first is slavery by birth. Even if the father of a child born to a slave was free, the child still remained a slave and was deprived of civil rights.

The second - a prisoner of war or a sailor captured by pirates could become a slave. Slaves were equated with goods, they were traded in the markets, they were exhibited as a thing. Accordingly, the slaves had to look strong, youthful, well-groomed. The price depended on it.

Slaves were held in obedience under fear of severe punishment.

The owner used rods, sticks, a whip, a belt. There were special shackles for hands and feet. With these shackles he was sometimes forced to work.

8. Religion

Religion has always played a significant role in the life of the Romans, especially at an early historical stage. But the Romans are a pragmatic people, so rituals have always been stamped with practicality. Religion was focused on a specific life practice, regulated human behavior. In this regard, our Russian proverb can be applied to the Romans: "Trust in God, but don't make a mistake yourself."

Divine services were held in the house of a Roman. Almost any detail of the everyday life, starting with the morning awakening and ending with going to bed, was consecrated by a certain religious rite.

A huge number of rural holidays such as harvest, pruning of vines, ripening of ears - everything had to be specially marked, and accompanied by sacrifices. The Romans remembered all signs, prophetic dreams, sacramental words that he was not supposed to pronounce, vows and prohibitions, amulets, conspiracies that insure against fires, misfortunes and diseases. A bad omen could force a change in route or abandon a well-thought-out plan of action.

If a Roman addressed the sky with any request, he had to know exactly which god it was addressed to. In addition, there were rigidly fixed verbal formulations that determined the style of expressing the request. Otherwise, the deity could simply ignore the request. The Roman seemed to be addressing not to a deity, but to a specific official in the state instance, not offering a prayer, but addressing a petition drawn up according to a fixed canon.

Ritualism ignored the state of mind of the worshiper. The sincerity and truth of his faith were not taken into account. The main thing was strict adherence to the letter of the rite. The ideal of the Romans was "order in everything", and consequently, peace of mind. The Roman seemed to buy the blessing of heaven with prayers and sacrifices.

9. Cult of the Dead

Funeral rites clearly show that when lowering the dead into the tomb, the ancient Romans believed that they were putting something living there.

There was a custom at the end of the funeral to call the soul of the deceased by the name that he bore during his lifetime. They wished her a happy life underground. Three times they told her "be healthy" and added "may the earth be easy for you!" So great was the belief that the buried person continues to live underground and retains the ability to feel happiness and suffering. On the grave they wrote that such and such a person “rests” here; an expression that has outlived its corresponding beliefs and, passing from century to century, has survived to our time. We still use it, although no one now thinks that an immortal being rests in the grave. But in ancient times they so firmly believed that a person lives there that they never forgot to bury with him those items that, in their opinion, he needed: clothes, vessels, weapons. Wine was poured on the grave to quench his thirst, food was placed to satiate him. They killed horses and slaves, thinking that these creatures, imprisoned with the deceased, would serve him in the grave just as they did during his lifetime.

In order for the soul to be firmly established in this underground dwelling, which was adapted for its second life, it was necessary that the body with which it remained connected was covered with earth. At the same time, it was not enough to bury the corpse in the ground; it is also necessary to observe the rituals established by custom and pronounce certain formulas. In Plautus, we find the story of one native of the other world: this is a soul that is forced to wander, because its body was laid in the ground without observing rituals. Historians say that when the body of Caligula was buried, the funeral ceremony remained unfinished, and as a result of this, his soul began to wander and appear alive until they decided to take the corpse out of the ground and bury it again according to all the rules ...

The creature that lived underground was not so free from human nature as not to feel the need for food. In view of this, on certain days, food was brought annually to each grave. The dead were considered sacred beings. The ancients endowed them with the most respectful epithets they could find: they called them kind, happy, blessed. They treated the dead with all the respect that a person can feel for a deity that he loves or fears. In their opinion, every dead person was a god. And this deification was not the privilege of great people: no distinction was made between the dead. Cicero says: "Our ancestors wanted people who left this life to be considered among the gods." The Romans called the dead: gods of mana. "Pay tribute to the gods of the manes," continues Cicero, "these are the people who have left life; consider them as divine beings." The graves were the temples of these deities, so they had a sacred inscription on them: Dis Mambus. The buried god lived here. In front of the graves stood altars for sacrifices, as well as in front of the temples of the gods.

As soon as they stopped bringing food to the dead, they immediately left their graves: and people heard the cries of these wandering shadows in the silence of the night. They reproached the living for their negligence and tried to punish them; they sent sickness and afflicted the soil with barrenness. They did not leave the living alone until they again began to bring food to the graves. Sacrifices, bringing food and libations forced the shadows to return to the grave, restored their peace and divine quality. Then man was at peace with them.

On the other hand, the deceased, who was worshiped, was a patron deity. He loved those who brought him food. To help them, he continued to take part in human affairs and often played a prominent role in them. They turned to him with prayers, asked for his support and mercy.

10. Leisure time of the Romans

"Rest is after work" - said a Latin proverb. The Romans used their free time in different ways. Educated people with high spiritual interests devoted themselves to science or literature, not considering it "business", but considered it as leisure, as "rest of the spirit." So rest for the Romans did not mean doing nothing.

The choice of activities was wide: sports, hunting, conversations, and especially visiting spectacles. There were many spectacles, and everyone could find the one that he liked best: theater, gladiator fights, chariot races, acrobat performances or a display of exotic animals.

Attending various public spectacles was the main pleasure of the Roman; the Romans indulged in it with such passion that not only men, but even women and children were present at the spectacles; equestrians, senators and, finally, even emperors took an active part in them. Of all the stage performances, the Romans loved comedy most of all, but they were even more attracted to their games in the circus and in the amphitheater, which, with their terrible scenes, greatly contributed to the moral coarsening of the Roman population.

In addition to the public spectacles mentioned above, the Romans also loved various games, especially the game of ball, dice, and a game similar to modern checkers or chess. The ball game (pilaludere, lususpilarum) was the most beloved and was a good bodily exercise not only for children, but also for adults. It was played in public squares, especially on the Champ de Mars, in special halls located at the baths, as well as in other places. The game of dice (alealudere) has long been a favorite pastime. When it was used: tali - grandmas and tesserae cubes.

Public readings and then discussions of poetic works eventually became an integral part of cultural life during the period of the Roman Empire. Meetings of these listeners with poets took place in baths, in porticos, in the library at the temple of Apollo, or in private houses. They were arranged mainly in those months when there were many holidays associated with spectacles: in April, July or August. Later, speakers began to make speeches to the public. The recitation of a speech or poetry sometimes dragged on for several days.

A favorite place for recreation and entertainment of the Romans were public baths - terms. These were huge, luxuriously finished buildings with swimming pools, halls for games and conversations, gardens, libraries. The Romans often spent whole days here. They bathed, talked with friends. Important public affairs were also discussed in the baths, deals were made.

Emperors built baths for the Roman people. At the beginning of the IV century. in Rome there were twelve imperial baths and many baths owned by private individuals. Private baths were, of course, incomparably more modest than the imperial baths. The size of the imperial baths is at least evidenced by the fact that the baths of Emperor Diocletian look like a grandiose building even next to the modern Termini station in Rome - a large modern transport hub. More than one and a half thousand people could freely stay in the baths of the emperor Caracalla at the same time.

11. Dwelling

The device of a rich Roman house from the time of the empire was: atrium - a reception hall, tablinum - an office and peristylium - a courtyard surrounded by columns.

From the street in front of the house, there was often a vestibulum vestibule - a platform between the line of the facade and the outer door of the house, from where through the ianua door they entered the front ostium, and from here through an open or closed entrance with only one curtain - into the atrium.

Atrium - the reception hall, which is the main part of the house. From above, the atrium was protected by a roof, the slopes of which, facing the inside of the house, formed a large quadrangular opening - the compluvium. Opposite this hole in the floor was a recess of equal size - implivium for the drainage of rainwater (which ran from the roof through the compluvium). On both sides of the atrium were living and service rooms, which received light from the atrium. The rooms adjoining the atrium from the front side were usually given over to trade movements (tabernae), and they had an entrance only from the street. In the back of the atrium in the homes of nobles, wax images of the ancestors of the imagines were kept.

Atrium - made up a later cultural time a necessary part of every Roman house; the actual "family" meaning of the atrium has already receded into the background: the kitchen received a separate room, the dining room turned into a separate triclinium (triclinium), household gods were placed in a special sanctuary (sacrarium). Atrium turned into a front room, the decoration of which (columns, sculptures, frescoes, mosaics) cost a lot of money.

The atrium was followed by the tablinum - the owner's study - a room open from the side of the atrium and peistil. On one (or on two of its sides) there was a small corridor (fauces), through which they passed from the atrium to the peristyle.

Peristylium - peristyle - was an open courtyard surrounded by a colonnade and various outbuildings. In the middle of it there was often a small garden (veridarium) with a reservoir (piscine), on the sides there were bedrooms, a dining room (triclinium), a kitchen, work rooms, a home bath, servants' quarters, pantries, etc. In the peristyle there was usually a room for household gods - lararium, sacrarium - a goddess.

The roof of the house in ancient times was covered with straw, and later with tiles. The ceiling was originally simple, planked, but over time they began to give it an elegant shape, forming recesses of a beautiful shape on it; such a ceiling was called lacunar, laquear. It was supported by columns, often marble. The walls (parietes) were originally only whitewashed on plaster, and over time they began to decorate with colored marbles, expensive types of wood, but more often with paintings; the remains of such painting - (alfresco) have been perfectly preserved to our time; Pompeian wall paintings are especially famous.

The floor (solum) in ancient times was made of clay or stone (pavementum), and then, especially in rich houses, mosaic, often of highly artistic work. So, to our time, a highly artistic mosaic depicting the victory of Alexander over Darius at the battle of Issus has been preserved in Naples. Light entered the house partly through holes in the ceiling, partly through doors or through holes in the wall (windows - fenestrae), which were closed with curtains or shutters, subsequently sheets of mica were inserted into them and, finally, glass. In ancient times, a pine torch or pine torches (taeda, fax) were used for lighting, in addition, something like candles (candela), later oil lamps (lucerna) of artistic work came into use - made of clay and metal (bronze).

To make fire, they struck iron on flint or rubbed dry pieces of wood against each other. The house was heated by means of hearths (focus), braziers (caminus), portable stoves (fornax) or with the help of warm air carried through pipes under the floor, in the walls from an oven located under the floor (hypocaustum).

The upper floor (tabulatum) was sometimes arranged above the buildings of the peristyle, less often above the atrium, and contained various residential movements. Sometimes, in the form of a covered balcony, it protruded far into the street above the lower floor; it usually had a flat roof, which was often decorated with flowers or trees planted in pots or in earth poured here.

Country house - villa. The word villa originally meant only "estate", "estate". Subsequently, villarustica began to differ - an estate or a manor and villaurbana - a cottage arranged more according to the urban model.

Villas at the end of the era of the Republic and especially during the time of the emperors were real palaces, with beautiful parks, ponds, menageries and were distinguished by various amenities and great luxury. For the construction of villas, the most picturesque areas were chosen, most often on the seashore or near large rivers. There were especially many of them near Tusculum, Tibur and in Campania, which has a mild climate.

The dwelling of the ancient Roman was filled with much less furniture than our modern one: there were no desks, no bulky cupboards, no chests of drawers, no wardrobes. There were few items in the inventory of the Italian house, and, perhaps, the first place among the furniture belonged to the bed, since the ancients spent much more time in it than we do: they not only slept on the bed, but also dined, and studied - read and wrote.

The bed of the Roman is very similar to the modern one: - on four (rarely on six) legs. In addition to the headboard, sometimes it is also equipped with a footboard, which is an exact copy of the headboard. Each pair of legs is interconnected by a strong cross member; sometimes, for greater strength, two more longitudinal bars were added, inserting them closer to the frame. Instead of our metal mesh, a frequent belt binding was pulled over the frame.

The beds were made of wood (maple, beech, ash), and sometimes the frame was from one tree species, and the legs from another. Legs were sometimes carved from bones. In one of the most noble and wealthy Pompeian houses, in the house of a faun, ivory bed legs were found; more often, of course, they took cheaper material: horse bones and from cattle. It happened that the bone was covered with a carved pattern; wooden legs upholstered in bronze. The headboard, the graceful curve of which already had an ornamental value in itself, was also trimmed with bronze. On the Pompeii dining couch, a silver inlaid design curls along the bronze armrests; above and below them, on one side of the bed, there are figurines of cupids cast in bronze, and on the other side, swan heads. Very often, a donkey's head was placed on the headboard.

The absence of taste, characteristic of many layers of Roman society of that time, the substitution of simple and beautiful in its simplicity with plentiful and not always harmonious ornamentation, respect not for a thing, but for its value - all this had an extremely bright effect on the example of beds with tortoiseshell inlay.

We do not know how much the beds cost and which of them were more expensive and which were cheaper, but that such furniture was available only to rich people, this is obvious. And they covered such a bed with fabrics that were also luxurious and expensive.

First of all, a mattress was placed on the belt cover, stuffed with good, specially treated wool for stuffing mattresses. The Levkons, a Gallic tribe that lived in present-day Belgium, were famous for its manufacture.

Mattress bedding and blankets (stragulae vestes) were both expensive and luxurious.

Tables were needed for different purposes: they ate at them, they put various objects on them; like the beds, they served a practical purpose and, like the beds, they were the decoration of the room.

It must be admitted that the Romans, who are usually reproached for their lack of taste, showed great artistic tact by placing in the center of the atrium in the most illuminated place such a table as a cartibulus. This heavy, bulky table with formidable grinning figures approached a huge, darkish, almost empty hall; it created a unified general impression, a basic general tone, which the rest of the furniture, lighter and more cheerful, could somewhat soften, but was no longer able to disturb.

Another type of table was portable tables with delicately curved legs that ended in goat's hooves. The same type of light tables also includes stand tables, several samples of which have come down to us from Pompeii. They are also from Greece. The same type of light tables, sometimes three-legged, sometimes four-legged, include sliding tables, which, with the help of hinged braces, could be made higher or lower. Several such tables have been found in Pompeii; one with a removable board in red Tenar marble with bronze trim around the edge; familiar already curved legs end in a flower cup, from which rise figures of satyrs, holding small rabbits tightly to their chests.

As for the seats, in the Italian house they were represented by stools, the legs of which were machined after the pattern of beds, and chairs with curved legs and a back folded back rather far. This comfortable furniture was considered generally intended for women.

The clothes of the ancient Italian - both rich and poor - consisted of such pieces of matter that could not be hung, but had to be folded: in household use, cabinets were required less than chests. They were made of wood and upholstered with bronze or copper plates; sometimes such a chest was decorated with some other cast figures. These chests were quite large.

Beds, a dining table, small tables, several stools and chairs, one or two chests, several candelabra - that's the whole atmosphere of an Italian house. It did not clutter up the old aristocratic mansion, in the atrium of which there was enough space for the largest cartibulum and in the front dining rooms of which large tables and boxes fit freely.

With the relocation from the mansion to a rented apartment, home life was radically rebuilt. In the five rooms of the spacious Ostian apartment, facing one side, one had to be content both in winter and in summer with the same dining room and bedroom: the custom of the mansion to arrange these rooms, one for winter and the other for summer, was not suitable for an insula. And here, however, the apartments were not crammed with furniture. The largest room was probably assigned to the dining room: guests were usually invited to dinner, and a table and at most three beds were set up here; the room at the opposite end of the apartment served as the owner's study and reception room - there was a bed for classes, a chest, two or three stools. The other three were bedrooms, each with a bed and a small table and chair.

Conclusion

In conclusion, I would like to say that the topics I have considered very clearly and clearly reflect the life of the ancient Roman. Trying not to miss even the smallest details, I tried to reflect many areas of the life of an ancient person. But I am sure that everything that was considered by me is only a hundredth or a thousandth of what actually happened! After all, the ancient era is very rich in its elements.

Looking at the family of an ancient Roman, I learned that the attitude towards a woman was much softer and more respectful than in Ancient Greece (despite the fact that Rome is the heir to Greece). Speaking about the education of children, I involuntarily drew attention to the fact that it was prestigious to send children to Greece there, just as it was in our country abroad. People were preoccupied with their inner spiritual world, they read a lot, studied and developed themselves, but not as much as was customary in Greece. Indeed, in Rome, the main feature of a person was courage and courage. Every Roman had to be able to stand up first for his homeland, and only then for himself. As for the free time of the ancient man, they were not as bored as it seemed to me. They had many "cafes" where you could go if you had money. There was an opportunity to go to the baths - baths, this occupation is one of the favorite among the ancients. They were very fond of reading.

Considering the achievements of ancient civilizations, we can only be surprised and admire the resourcefulness and aesthetics of our distant ancestors: their way of life and culture seems so modern today. And, it seems that the Europeans have not invented so much that is radically new since that time in the field of design and interior.

Bibliography

cultural roman family ritual education

1. B.A. Gilenson, Antique Literature, 2002, M., 18-40 p.

2. Sergeenko M.E. "Life of Ancient Rome" M., 2004

3. Chenabe T. S. "Roman society in the era of the early empire" in the book "History of the Ancient World" - vol. III "The Decline of Ancient Societies", M., 2002

4. Blavatsky V. D. "Life and history of antiquity" edited by - M., 1940

5. Kiabe T.S. "Ancient Rome - history and everyday life", M., 2006

6. Kagan Yu.M. "Life and history in antiquity", M., "Nauka", 1988

7. Giro P. Life and customs of the ancient Romans. - Smolensk: Rusich, 2001

8. Nikityuk E. V. Life of ancient society. Food and drink of the Greeks and Romans. - St. Petersburg: 2005.

9. Paul Guiraud. "Private and public life of the Romans". - St. Petersburg: publishing house "Aletheya", 1995

10. Ukolova V.I., Marinovich L.P. "Ancient world history". M.: Enlightenment, 2001

family played a very important role. When in the family a child was born it has always been a great holiday, but only if father took the child in his arms. Otherwise, the child was simply thrown out into the street. Also thrown into the street weak and ugly children.

In poor families sometimes healthy children were also abandoned. In this case, they were placed in baskets and brought to the market.

Traditions in the families of the ancient Romans

Father in ancient Rome was head of the family and had exclusive power over his family. He even knew how execute personally at their own discretion of the delinquent family members. Only with the arrival in Rome Christianity throwing out children was considered a crime in the city, and the execution of adult children was murder.

Parenting

When boy in Ancient Rome was seven years old, then he began to comprehend various sciences under the guidance of his father. The boys were taught to wield weapons, to ride, they were also hardened and taught to endure pain. In rich and wealthy families of the Romans, boys were also taught to read and write. Girls they continued to stay with their mothers.

Upon reaching a certain age boys in ancient Rome, they received an adult toga and gave them for training to a government official. In ancient Rome, such education was called elementary. school of the Roman Forum. After that, the young men passed military training on the marsovo m field in Rome and were sent without fail to serve in the army.

Artisans children grew in tight insulae. Unlike the children of aristocratic families, they received education only in elementary grades. Such training began at the age of seven and continued for five years. Study in Rome allowed constant beatings of students. Summer vacation were pretty long. In the city they lasted up to four months, and in the countryside up to six months.

Schedule

routine of life of the ancient Romans was the same, both for a simple Roman and for a senator. The Romans got up at dawn. Putting on his sandals, the Roman made his toilet, washing his face and hands.

Roman breakfast consisted of a piece of bread that was soaked in wine and sprinkled with salt. Sometimes this bread was smeared with honey.

The Roman usually completed all his affairs already by noon. After which he followed lunch who was also quite modest. Even the emperors did not allow themselves great excesses during the second breakfast.

After the second breakfast came afternoon rest period. After that, the Romans went to baths to chat with friends, to work out in gymnastic halls and, of course, wash.

Already By the evening the whole Roman family gathered for dinner. During the supper, which usually lasted several hours, the manners of the Romans were no longer so strict. Often the diners were entertained dancers. There was casual conversation around the table, and jokes were heard.

except visits to the term The Romans had other entertainments as well. They loved different puzzles and riddles played dice and ball.

After the victorious wars, Rome began to arrive in an endless stream spoils of war and slaves. As a result, many noble Romans got themselves slaves of various categories. Among the mandatory categories were - slaves porters, stretcher-carrying slaves, slaves accompanying the master to visit, a cook slave.

especially rich Romans allowed themselves to keep theaters where actors and singers were slaves. Usually such slaves cost in the slave market the biggest money.

Rome is held by ancient morals

And the valor of the citizens.

Quintus Ennius

Roman! You learn to rule the peoples sovereignly -

This is your art - to impose the conditions of the world,

Show mercy to the humble and humble the haughty with war!

Virgil

Lifestyle and ideals

"Fatherly manners" . Moral guidelines in the life of the Romans evolved in accordance with the state of society and the state. The time of the republican order, which coincided with the grandiose conquests of Rome, gave rise to the ideal of a citizen who is able to preserve and increase the glory and prosperity of the fatherland. The Romans treated the deeds and customs of their ancestors with the greatest respect. From generation to generation, legends about their exploits were passed on - role models. Service to the Republic was the highest duty and dignity of the Roman, who was obliged to unquestioningly follow the law, respect the authorities, and protect the state. “I must, therefore I can” was the immutable rule of life. The image of a stern and honest warrior is found many times in Roman literature as an example of the best citizen (read Plutarch, Livy, Cicero!). Restraint and self-control adorned a person. “The Romans, from time immemorial, have a peculiar custom in strength to show the highest degree of pride and perseverance in misfortune and the greatest moderation in happiness: everyone recognizes this course of action as correct,” writes Polybius. In addition, a Roman must be a pious person, an impeccable family man, a zealous owner. Dignity and courage were complemented by modesty, unpretentiousness and simplicity in everyday life. It was considered indecent to flaunt one's wealth. Even Roman senators, like Cato, lived simply - for example, they ate from wooden and earthenware dishes. Their wives and daughters themselves spun wool, wove and sewed clothes. The laws of the XII tables provided for measures that prevented extravagance and luxury. There we also find articles that limited the splendor of burials, which was considered a demonstration of wealth. In the III century BC. the senate, at the urging of Cato, passed a decision forbidding women to wear numerous jewelry, and a century later, by special decree, limited the possible expenses of Roman citizens for lunch. Laws "against luxury" appeared in subsequent centuries. However, it was very difficult to maintain this ideal in the conditions of Rome's transformation into a power, in the conditions of global changes - the influx of slaves, silks, carpets, silver utensils, works of art, etc., into Rome from the east. The decline in morals, expressed in the habit of luxury, in the desire for enrichment, in the love of idleness, became apparent already at the end of the republic. "O times! Oh morals!” exclaims Cicero. And then we see a gallery of vain politicians fighting for power, cruel conquerors, established in their impunity, shameless robbers - governors of provinces, plebeians demanding "bread and circuses", crowned tyrants, idlers, flatterers, gluttons, debauchees ... In specific examples there is no shortage of this kind, although, perhaps, they will not remain in history the “calling card” of a Roman citizen, but images full of moral meaning that we will find in the testimonies of Roman writers even about the most troubled times.

military prowess. The Romans devoted a significant part of their lives to military labors. All the qualities necessary for a Roman soldier, the young men learned almost from the cradle. It was believed that the best warriors come from good farmers, since the qualities necessary for both are largely the same: strength of body and strength of mind, endurance and unpretentiousness, respect for elders. Above all other virtues, the Romans put military prowess, understanding it more widely than other peoples. In the view of the Romans, it meant not only personal courage, but also loyalty to the homeland, devotion to combat comrades-in-arms, the ability to meekly and steadfastly endure hard work and hardship, unquestioning obedience to commanders. The warriors of many peoples were not inferior to the Romans in their courage, but few of them could, like a Roman legionnaire, carry more than forty kilograms of various luggage on their shoulders during a campaign, every evening build a military camp on the site of a night stop - a whole city, fortified with ditches, ramparts and palisades, to be content with military meager rations. No other army had such severe discipline, such strict execution of orders. Roman sentries, who did not receive an order to withdraw during the advance of the enemy, preferred to die rather than leave their post. At the same time, successful conquests instilled in the Romans a sense of arrogant superiority over other peoples, contempt for barbarian culture and customs. The futility and harm of such an attitude was emphasized by Tacitus, who respectfully described the way of life and character of the Germans at the end of the 1st century AD.

The private life of the Romans

The dwelling, utensils, appearance of the Roman, his meal and pastime depended on the wealth of the family and social status. Nevertheless, one can catch the common features of private life - the aura of the house, the spirit of the family, the passion for activities and entertainment, characteristic of the people of ancient Roman society.

Roman house. Some Romans lived in modest closets, others in rich houses or country villas. But everywhere was noticeable concern for the beauty and convenience of the home. Central room of the house atrium) served for family celebrations and receiving guests. The ceiling opening in its roof was made for ventilation and lighting, and under the opening there was a pool where rainwater flowed. Dirty water went down drains outside the house. Behind the atrium there were other rooms - the master's office, a dining room, a kitchen, and bedrooms. The favorite resting place was a courtyard surrounded by columns ( peristyle). The combination of greenery and water, so valued by the Romans, has always been present here: flowers, bushes, fountains, artificial waterfalls made the rest enjoyable. Rural and many city houses were supplied with running water or wells. Living in the cramped spaces of high-rise buildings insul(in rented apartments) was much more prosaic. In the absence of amenities in them, the Romans were forced to carry water to their homes from the nearest well, use public latrines, and throw rubbish right out the window. Juvenal laments the danger of walking through the Roman streets when "broken crockery is flying from above." The internal view of the Italic house can be clearly seen in the surviving interiors of Pompeian houses. The furniture in the house, wicker and wood, was comfortable and varied: chairs of various configurations, low tables for dining or reading and wide marble tables on which dishes were placed, beds with a headboard covered with a mattress and woolen blankets, dining beds ( wedge), where it was possible to accommodate three, chests for clothes, chests for books ... An important addition to the interior were lamps (simple clay and pompous bronze candelabra), portable ovens, braziers, kitchen and table utensils (wicker boxes, ceramic, bronze and silver vessels) . The houses of wealthy citizens had mosaic floors, columns, niches, wall paintings, and were decorated with statues.

Roman meal. In the early Republican period, the diet of the Romans was modest. Cato, for example, praised his ancestors for moderation in food, which he himself tried to adhere to. In an effort to use daylight hours, the Romans got up early (often at 4-5 in the morning) and, having eaten, got down to business. Like the Greeks, they usually ate three times a day: in the early morning there was the first breakfast, around noon - the second, in the late afternoon - dinner. Bread, cereals, milk, eggs, cheese, raisins, vegetables for breakfast, fish and seafood, poultry or domestic animals, vegetables, fruits, pies and biscuits for dessert at lunch - this was the usual set of products. The Romans, like the Greeks, drank wine, most often diluted. Sometimes rose petals, violets or juniper twigs were added to it for taste and aroma. In addition, in the cold season they were very fond of the drink. caldu from wine, hot water, honey and spices. They also drank grape fruit drinks and mulsum(a drink made from fresh grape juice and honey). Family dinners (women took part in them) were a small celebration and could last several hours. During the period of the late republic and empire, almost nothing remained of the patriarchal simplicity of feasts. In rich houses, feasts were increasingly held, at which abundance and excess were commonplace. Many specially trained slaves served at large dinners, singers and musicians were invited to them, the meal was diversified with dice games and grandmothers. The famous description of the feast of Trimalchio in the Satyricon by Petronius presents a picture of gluttony and excessive luxury, not far removed from reality:

In the meantime, an exquisite snack was served ... In the middle of the tray stood a donkey of Corinthian bronze with packs in which lay white olives on one side and black olives on the other. Above the donkey were two silver platters, engraved with the name of Trimalchio and the weight of the silver, and on a soldered stand like a bridge lay fried dormouse seasoned with poppy seeds and honey. There were also hot sausages on a silver grill, and under the grill were Syrian plums and pomegranate seeds.

Appearance and body care. Like the Hellenes, the Romans paid great attention to their appearance - cleanliness, body care, a variety of clothes. At the same time, here everything was subject to traditions and laws. The underwear of men and women was tunic. She already indicated the social status of a person. Thus, the senators wore a white tunic with a wide purple stripe, the horsemen with a narrow stripe, the victors should wear a purple tunic. Over the tunic, women wore a long and wide table with a short sleeve, in cold weather they also used an upper cape - palloy. Men's outerwear was toga. It was worn only by Roman citizens who had " right toga". A large piece of fabric was laid in a special way in folds, throwing the end over the left hand. Over time, the Greeks also spread among the Romans. hematia, as well as leather capes with a hood. Shoes were leather sandals with straps around the leg, boots for long hikes, low boots. Wearing a headdress within the city was considered unacceptable; if necessary, and during religious ceremonies, the edge of a toga was thrown over the head. Roman hairstyles are well known to us from sculptural and vase paintings. Men wore a beard and mustache, but could do without them. Women styled their hair with a crown over their foreheads, a knot at the back of their heads, decorated their hair with wreaths, ribbons and tiaras, and sometimes wore wigs. The most common decoration was brooches- exquisitely shaped fasteners that fastened clothes. Women enthusiastically wore necklaces, earrings, rings, bracelets, parasols from the sun. Care for cleanliness, health and fitness was realized in sports halls and baths. "In a healthy body healthy mind". This conviction, expressed by Juvenal, was not an empty phrase for the Romans. Cosmetics served to preserve youth and beauty: creams, whitewash, blush, antimony for eyebrows, paint for lips and eyelids. Ovid, a connoisseur of women's charms, wrote a special manual for women in verse, Ointments for the Face. Fragrant oils from rose petals or saffron were in use, wealthy Romans and Roman women used perfumes brought from the East. Jewelry, combs and combs (sometimes of very fine workmanship) were stored in special boxes. Mirrors made of copper or silver were polished on one side and decorated with engraving on the other.

Marriage and family. The Romans treated marriage and family life as a sacred institution. From ancient times, they knew and honored their ancestors, issued “family” laws, considered the upbringing of children a matter of national importance. Marriage was possible from the age of 14 for boys and from 12 for girls. It was a natural and desirable event (thus, Augustus made a law according to which stubborn bachelors could not receive an inheritance until they married). ancient form of marriage marriage at hand”) assumed that the wife completely passes under the authority of her husband, who received the right to dispose of her dowry. Over time, this attitude was supplanted by a looser union ( marriage without a hand), when a woman remained under the authority of her father, and the husband had no right to her property. Marriage was preceded by betrothal, during which young people gave each other marriage vow. The groom gave his future wife a coin as a symbol of the future union, and an iron ring that the bride wore on the ring finger of her left hand. The conclusion of marriage required the execution of an agreement and was accompanied by symbolic rites (special attire of the bride, a beautiful wedding procession) and a wedding feast. Divorces were undesirable, their necessity was determined, as a rule, by judges. head of family ( householder) was a husband who had absolute power over all the members surnames wife, children, slaves. He could drive his wife away, refuse to accept the child that was born (then the child was simply thrown away, and this situation continued until the time of the empire), give his son into slavery for debts (until the abolition of debt slavery), or even kill him. His power over his sons was maintained until the death of one of the parties, with the exception of rare cases where children gained independence ( emancipation). The position of a woman, despite the guardianship of her husband or father, was freer than in Greece, where girls and women lived as recluses. The Romans ran a household, could freely appear in society, in their families, as a rule, they were respected. They were the mistresses of the house - matrons. Women left politics and war to men. However, during the period of the late republic and empire, Roman matrons, especially from imperial families, sometimes played a very significant role in society, participated in political intrigues, and influenced husbands invested with power. Born (and recognized) boys received a personal name, to which a generic and family name was added ( Gaius Julius Caesar), girls had to be content with only a generic name (daughter of Gaius Julius Caesar - Julia), to which, if necessary, an ordinal number was added ( Julia the First, Julia the Second etc.) or definition ( Elder, Younger). In the family, children received early education - from parents, nurses, nannies, slave teachers. The father taught the boys to read and write, horseback riding and the basics of military science, the girls stayed with their mother. Having reached the age of majority, the young men at the forum solemnly dressed in " adult toga and became citizens of the Roman state.

Roman education. The Romans of different classes were literate people. Already in the 5th century BC. there was a school at the Forum, and the Laws of the XII tables exhibited there could be read by everyone. Primary education took place in literacy school which anyone could open. The level in it was not high: children were taught to read, write, count, memorize poems. Education began at the age of seven and lasted five years. About half a year each year was spent on holidays (four months) and holidays. Discipline in such schools was established with sticks, not without reason Martial called the cane "the scepter of the teacher." The tuition fee was not very high; poor artisans and farmers could afford it. In wealthy families, elementary knowledge was often given at home, inviting a teacher. Middle step learning was in the hands grammarians, who, as a rule, had broad knowledge and were respected in society. Grammarians taught teenagers the Greek language, literature, history, geography, astronomy, taught them to speak correctly and analyze what they read. According to Suetonius, at the end of the republic there were more than twenty grammar schools in Rome. From the age of 14-16, boys could enter rhetoric school. Rhetorical schools initially belonged to the Greeks (rhetoric came from Greece). Education in them was not cheap, but it opened the way to the prestigious and profitable profession of a judicial orator, and therefore was popular. Over time, thanks to Cicero, who created Roman oratory, Latin rhetorical schools appeared. The practice of schools included the solution of logical problems, the composition of speeches, the study of laws, the analysis of fictitious court cases. Having passed this the highest level, young people could continue their education outside of Rome - in Athens, Rhodes or Alexandria.

funeral rites.The Romans honored dead relatives and kept the memory of them. Seeing off on the last journey was solemn and significant (although it depended on the wealth of the family). Relatives closed the eyes of the deceased, mourned him, washed the body, anointed him with oils that delayed decomposition (this was cedar oil, which, according to Pliny, “keeps the bodies of the dead intact for centuries by decay”, they attributed the same power to salt and honey), dressed in toga and put on the front bed, next to which they put the incense burner. Burial followed, as a rule, on the eighth day. The funeral procession of a noble Roman consisted of relatives, friends, clients, freedmen, specially hired mourners, flute players and an actor who portrayed the deceased during his lifetime. Both burial in the ground and cremation were accepted. When betraying the earth the body was placed in a wooden or stone coffin, then lowered into a crypt or into the ground. The people of the poor and slaves were buried on the Esquiline Hill, the rich had their own burial places. For noble Romans, luxurious burial structures were built - such are Roman round tombs. At cremation the body was placed on a wooden platform, wrapped in a fireproof cloth (so that the ashes were preserved), incense was placed there and sacrificial animals were laid. The right to set fire to a funeral pyre was an honorary right of the relatives of the deceased. The ashes were placed in an urn that was kept by the family or could be placed in public places - columbaria or tombs (for example, the urn with the ashes of Trajan was placed at the base of his column). Private lands could serve as cemeteries, but more often necropolises placed along the roads, reminding the living of those who left the earthly world. Sometimes the burial place turned into a vast burial complex with a park, porticoes, and sculpture. Such a complex was built for himself and his descendants by Augustus.

Recreation and entertainment

“Entertainment and jokes are, of course, allowed to us, but just like sleep and other types of recreation, only when we have already completed important and responsible deeds,” Cicero notes. Indeed, the life of a Roman, no matter what class he belongs to, took place in the works. The rare hours of rest were used in various ways. Educated people devoted time to science or literature, not considering it work (to rest for the Romans did not mean doing nothing). Others enjoyed walking, playing sports, hunting, playing ball or dice. Still others took part in mass spectacles with special passion.

Nature in the life of the Romans. The generous nature of Italy gave a special flavor not only to everyday work, but also to leisure. Love for her is reflected in countless literary works. What is the poetic hymn to the nature of Italy in Virgil's Georgics worth! And in his "Bucoliki" beautiful arable lands, fields, hills become a place for no less beautiful songs of shepherds. The beneficial influence of nature, according to Pliny, forms a person, because "thanks to the rarefied air of the sky, the noon peoples, having a sharp mind because of the heat, think and make decisions easier and faster." City dwellers sought to surround their home with a garden and a flower garden, and even acquire a villa away from the hustle and bustle of the city, where blissful hours of relaxation were spent.

Intellectual studies. Appeal to the sciences, reading, intellectual communication were the favorite pastimes of the educated part of Roman society. “Leisure without studies is death and burial alive,” wrote Seneca. In his Moral Letters to Lucilius, he taught to value time, inner freedom, and friendly conversation. To create the "Natural History", Pliny the Elder studied two thousand writings, he gives part of this list in his book. Cicero called books his best friends, the hours spent with them he considered a precious rest from his labors in the state field. In the city house and country estate, he ordered the equipping of libraries. Many famous Romans had large private book collections. First public public library was founded in Rome by Asinius Pollio at the end of the Republic. By the 4th century A.D. the number of public libraries grew to twenty-eight. It is known that the halls for reading and the collection of books were at the Roman baths. The usual way for Roman intellectuals and just lovers of literature to get acquainted with new works was public readings, to which many people flocked. Probably, communication through correspondence with friends and like-minded people was also a kind of outlet from everyday worries. The letters of Cicero, Seneca, Pliny the Younger, which have come down to us, testify to the constant work of the mind and soul during leisure hours.

Love for spectacle. Rome in the late republican and imperial era became famous for its numerous mass spectacles, an addiction to which was characteristic of both the Roman aristocracy and the plebs. Perhaps the most famous were Gladiator fights, demonstrating the art of battle ("gladius" means "sword"). The custom of gladiatorial fights came to the Romans from the Etruscans, who accompanied the burials of the dead with similar rituals. In Rome, at first they had the same meaning, but gradually turned into spectacles beloved by the Romans, arranging which any politician or ruler could easily gain popularity. So, Caesar in 65 BC. held games in which 320 pairs of gladiators took part, which helped him enlist the support of the people. Emperors monopolized the right to organize spectacles. Augustus staged gladiator fights eight times, bringing ten thousand people into the arena. The Flavii built the grandiose Colosseum for such spectacles. Trajan, in honor of his victories, organized games that lasted four months. Gladiators were, as a rule, slaves-prisoners of war, criminals condemned to death, and sometimes free, desperate to earn a living in another way. They were taught in special schools (one of them was in Capua, from where 200 slaves, led by Spartacus, fled in 74 BC). The games were opened with a solemn procession of gladiators: in purple tunics embroidered with gold, they went around the arena. Then the fight on wooden swords began - the presentation of the techniques and martial arts of the participants, and only then the real weapons were taken out into the arena, and the battle began. The duel continued until the death or severe injury of one of the opponents. The winners received a palm branch and a cash award, some of them became real idols of the public. The life of the vanquished depended on the mood of the audience: a thumb raised by them meant a desire to pardon the defeated, lowered down - a demand to finish off. In this case, the winner turned the opponent face down and thrust his sword into his back or the back of the head. The spectators were especially delighted with the bouts gladiators-bestiaries with predators specially brought to Rome for this purpose (baiting by wild animals was also used as a particularly cruel type of execution, for example, under Nero).

Another type of mass entertainment - horse races(chariot races) and horse racing have long been popular in Rome. They were held in circuses and required dexterity and the ability to control a horse from the drivers. The clothes of the "racers" had different colors to make it easier for the audience to follow the running of the chariots. Usually the number of races did not exceed ten, but under Nero, games with several dozen races were arranged. The Romans loved to watch competitions of athletes, fist fighters, performances of acrobats or mimes. All festivities were accompanied by costly theatrical performances. Theatrical naval battles were impressive spectacles - naumachia. They were held in artificial (created specifically for this purpose) or natural reservoirs. For example, Emperor Claudius arranged a grand naumachia on Lake Futsin, in which fifty ships and twenty thousand soldiers took part!

So who are they - the ancient Romans? Respectable and law-abiding citizens, exemplary fathers of families and bearers of paternal virtues, pious guardians of rituals, brave warriors who turned Rome into the World? Or - gluttons corrupted by wealth and luxury, lovers of cruel spectacles, freeloaders, waiting for distributions and entertainment, rude conquerors of other peoples? It is hardly possible to answer unambiguously. In the concept of "Romans" we have the right to include commitment to state affairs, and military honor, and fidelity to the domestic way of life, and extreme manifestations of idleness and vice. The main thing is that they were living and active people who always tried to realize their destiny. They left to their descendants all the facets of human characters, which are not difficult to recognize in our contemporaries.

Roman manners, way of life and everyday life

How did they spend their free time? Let us turn to P. Giro's book "Life and customs of the ancient Romans." In Rome, the capital of a huge Empire, it was always noisy. Here you can see anyone - merchants, artisans, soldiers, scientists, a slave, a teacher, a noble horseman, a senator, etc. Crowds of petitioners flocked to the house of Roman aristocrats from early morning. There were still more noble and important people who sought a new position or honors. But one could see a poor teacher or scientist looking for a place as a mentor, an educator in a noble family, who wants to share a meal with a famous person (maybe he will get something). In a word, whole flocks of people gathered here. Plutarch compared them to annoying flies. This happened to us too. Let us recall Nekrasov: “Here is the front entrance… On solemn days, obsessed with a servile illness, the whole city drives up to the cherished doors with some kind of fright.”

Peristyle in the house of Menander. Pompeii

Of course, among these crowds were ordinary friends. Rome was no different from other cities in the world. Friendship, real friendship was highly valued here, above the law ... Where people know how to maintain and maintain friendly ties, there reigns an atmosphere of warmth and affection. Life here is red, and even grief is not so bitter. The Romans valued such friendship and celebrated a special holiday in honor of harmony and friendship - Charistia. The course of life went on once and for all in a circle: battles, campaigns, politics and constant communication with friends (visits, feasts, conversations, participation in events of families close to them, recommendations, requests, consultations, receptions, etc.). It was quite burdensome at times, as Cicero admitted. However, it was impossible to abandon this tradition, because it permeated the entire vertical and horizontal of society, holding it together from top to bottom. Of course, ties of kinship were also at the basis of friendly ties, but there were also bonds of a different kind. They sometimes turned out to be many times stronger than relatives. This is both a business and a business relationship. Everything came from the very top, from the administration of the princeps, where there was an institute "amici Augusti" (friends of the princeps). Moreover, this kind of friendly relations are almost official in nature. Before us is a kind of conclusion of a pact of peace and friendship, or, on the contrary, of hostility and war ... Valery Maxim reports how inimicitia (hostility) was announced in the national assembly. Personal enemies Aemilius Lepidus and Fulvius Flaccus, having been elected by the censors, hastened publicly, in a popular assembly, to conclude a friendly alliance, in order to thereby show everyone their intentions. Scipio Africanus and Tiberius Gracchus, on the contrary, publicly terminated the bonds of friendship, but then, finding themselves in neighboring places on the Capitol, at the banquet table at the festival in honor of Jupiter, they again entered into a friendly alliance, especially noting the union of the right hands (“dexteras eorum concentibus”), which is a kind of symbol of people reaching agreement.

Peristyle in the House of the Vettii. Pompeii

What was the basis of such friendly alliances? Most of all and most often the same as today - the provision of mutual services by the parties participating in the commonwealth to each other. According to Cicero's explanations, friendship is strengthened not only by the bonds of comradeship or cordial affection, but also by "the best services on the part of each of us." He compares them with a "marriage union", including here both relatives and friends, and comrades "in public affairs." To maintain friendship, according to him, such best qualities as piety, kindness, nobility of soul, benevolence and courtesy are necessary. Democritus considered friendship to be the equivalent of social life (“one who does not have a true friend is not worthy to live”), and Socrates emphasized that friendship is the most important institution of mutual assistance and mutual assistance (“a friend delivers what a friend lacks”). The ancients paid tribute to the rational or pragmatic principles encountered in friendship. Aristotle stressed the need for both parties to reciprocate in friendship. Only then "virtue is called friendship, if there is a retribution." However, the ancients also distinguished between the concepts of ideal friendship for the sake of pleasure and material friendship, for the sake of profit. Diogenes Laertes collected the statements of people (Cyrenaics) that they put utilitarian-pragmatic goals in the first place in friendly unions. Aristippus said: "They have a friend for their own benefit, like a member of the body, while he is with you." Egesius (Hegesius) quite cynically declared at all: “There is no respect, no friendship, no virtue, since they are not sought for their own sake, but for the sake of the benefit that they bring to us: if there is no benefit, they disappear.” In other words, friendship is always an exchange, although not always an exchange of goods. However, many did not agree with such a mundane interpretation of this lofty, important universal feeling.

Odysseus and Penelope

It is fundamentally wrong to define friendship based solely on socio-economic interests. After all, there are many more aspects of human relations and connections that are not limited to the area of profit. Cicero said about friendship: “Just as we are virtuous and generous, not in the expectation of gratitude (after all, we do not allow virtue to grow, but are moved to generosity by nature), so we consider friendship desirable not in the hope of a reward, but because all its benefits lies in love itself. Among other things, in friendship, in high friendship, the best side of a person's personality is embodied. Such friendship often leads to a feat, to cultural or ethical perfection. So, Epicurus believed that it was valuable in itself. Mutual affection purifies human relations from any selfish calculations. “Of what wisdom brings, making life in general the happiest, the greatest good is the possession of friendship.” In friendship we find shelter from all sorts of worldly storms.

General view of the square in front of the Pantheon

On the streets and squares of Rome, and indeed other cities, you can meet many people who made up a certain special class called "loitering". A contemporary poet to Tiberius wrote that they “do nothing and are always busy, exhausted over trifles, in constant motion and never achieving anything, always fussing and as a result only get bored by everyone.” Seneca compared them to ants, which, without a plan or purpose, run around the tree here and there (the comparison is unsuccessful, because ants are more industrious than most people and cannot be classified as idlers). There are people of this kind in Moscow, and in Paris, and in New York, and in Tokyo, and in Beijing, and in present-day Rome or Berlin. "The capital was a real center of bustling idleness, which flourished in it more than in any other city." Some were in a hurry to make an unnecessary visit, others to a stupid meeting, others wanted to take part in a drinking bout, others to make another, and most likely completely unnecessary, purchase, fifths visited the lady, not giving either her or themselves much pleasure. There are many among them who always tried to get into some empty official ceremonies. Show yourself and look at people. Galien described the day of the Roman in this way: “Early in the morning everyone makes visits; then many go to the forum to listen to judicial debates; an even larger crowd goes to admire the running of chariots and pantomimes; many spend their time in the baths playing dice, drinking or among pleasures, until they find themselves at a feast in the evening, where they amuse themselves not with music and serious pleasures, but indulge in orgies and debauchery, often staying up until the next day. Most of the top officials in Rome (as elsewhere) fussed not just out of the need to run or move somewhere, no, they wanted to earn, to get benefits. An insatiable thirst for wealth overcame them and was the main cause of the fuss that filled the streets, squares, palaces of Italy. Giving people position, distinction, honors, wealth, influence, money was considered the highest good. They are the god Jupiter, who is worshiped and served.

Tavern

Common people with constant pleasure attended not receptions (he was not allowed there), but taverns, taverns, taverns. After all, in taverns, for two ass, you could get a lamb's head, sausages flavored with garlic, onions and spices; beans, lentils, raw cabbage, other vegetables, roasted nuts, beets and porridge. All these dishes were eaten with coarse rye or barley bread, known as plebeian bread. In these institutions, however, there was unbearable heat and impassable dirt reigned. But wine brightened up all these inconveniences. Here they drank wine (boiled Cretan) and honey, ate cheese pies, played dice, passed the latest news and gossip to each other, slandered the gentlemen. There were no aristocrats and senators within these walls, although there were plenty of runaway slaves, thieves, murderers, undertakers, sailors, artisans, and even priests of Cybele.

Of course, there were some entertainments for intellectuals, those who were fond of literature, poetry, music, etc. Say, in the second half of the 1st century. (already under Augustus) public readings, which were organized by Asinius Pollio, came into fashion. The writer addressed his work to the audience, reading to her passages or the entire treatise (depending on patience and disposition). These readings were held either in halls or even in canteens (apparently, in order to make it more convenient to move from spiritual food to physical food). True, this occupation did not long seduce the Romans. By the end of the 1st c. public readings began to decline and turned into a heavy duty. Listeners tried to shirk her as best they could.

Those who preferred the life of a politician or activist (vita activa) - a contemplative-philosophical way of life (vita contemplative) or books, immersed themselves in the quiet of an office in libraries in their villas and estates ... They believed: “A sage should not engage in public affairs, except for extreme necessity." This is how other inhabitants of aristocratic villas understood life, like the house of the Vettii in Pompeii, the house of the Deer, the villa of the house of Telephus and the villa of the Papyrus in Herculaneum ... Discovered only in the 18th century. the villa of the Papyri belonged to one of the Roman aristocrats. The first treasure seekers penetrated its front chambers, library, peristyles, garden, dug mines and galleries here, then abandoned it all. Perhaps the villa was created during the time of Nero and the Flavians. This villa housed a collection of papyri, a small, well-chosen library. In a small room, they found rare papyrus scrolls containing works by famous authors. It is possible that the first owner of the villa was Piso, the father of the wife of Julius Caesar. In terms of their wealth, the papyri collected in the villa were not inferior to the libraries of the emperors. From the red-hot mud (the cities are buried under the streams of fiery lava), the books turned black and charred, but did not completely burn out. Although we are talking about the villa of the Romans in this case, so were the libraries of the most famous and wealthy Greeks. In the United States, a copy of the Villa of the Papyri in California was created, its owner was the American millionaire Getty, who placed a collection here (1970).

I. Jordans. Pan and Syringa. Brussels

When did the general decline in morals begin to be observed? Ancient authors have different opinions on this matter. According to Strabo, Fabius Pictor believed that the Romans first tasted luxury (or, as he puts it, "tasted riches") as early as the time of the 3rd Samnite War. After that, that is, by about 201 BC. e., after the 2nd Punic War and the defeat of Philip of Macedon, they began to show a tendency to a less strict lifestyle (Valery Maxim). Titus Livy believed that the army brought the habit of extravagance to Rome after returning from the depths of Asia, where it occupied rich countries (187 BC). Polybius dates the disappearance of the former modesty and frugality of the Romans to the time of the war with Perseus (168 BC). Posidonius and Sallust date the beginning of the era of decline with the destruction of Carthage by Rome (146 BC). Others attribute the date of the beginning of the era of degradation and decline of Rome to a long period (II century BC - II century AD). They are probably right: this process was long and constant.

Tomb in Kazanlak

Here is how Gaius Sallust Crispus explained the origins of the beginning of the degradation of Rome in his "War with Jugurtha". The Roman historian wrote: “Let us note that the habit of division into warring countries, with all the bad consequences from this, arose in Rome only a few years earlier, and gave rise to its idle life and the abundance of those goods that people value most of all. Indeed, until the destruction of Carthage, the Roman people and the Senate conducted the affairs of the state amicably and calmly, there was no struggle between citizens for glory and domination: fear of the enemy maintained good order in the city. But as soon as the hearts got rid of this fear, unbridledness and arrogance took its place - success willingly brings them along. And it turned out that peaceful idleness, which was dreamed of in the midst of disasters, turned out to be worse and bitterer than the disasters themselves. The nobles, little by little, turned their high position into arbitrariness, the people their freedom, everyone tore and pulled in their direction. Everything split into two camps, and the state, which had previously been a common property, was torn to shreds. The advantage, however, was on the side of the nobility - due to its solidarity, the forces of the people, scattered, fragmented among many, did not have this advantage. Peace and war were made by the arbitrariness of a handful of people, the same hands held the treasury, the provinces, the highest positions, glory, triumphs, and the people languished under the burden of military service and need. And while the commanders with their close associates plundered the booty, soldiers' parents and small children were driven from their homes if a strong neighbor happened nearby. Thus, side by side with power, greed appeared, immeasurable and insatiable, it defiled and destroyed everything, did not worry about anything and did not value anything, until it broke its own neck. While it was necessary to fight with a formidable enemy, while fear and the instinct of survival held together the interests of all Romans stronger than friendship and laws, Rome, like the USSR, was a single cohesive state. When the external threat disappeared, no less terrible internal war began for the possession of everything that Rome owned. And here there were neither friends nor enemies among the rivals, for each, by virtue of the animal herd, tried to snatch a piece from the other, to seize lands, valuables, slaves, estates.

Wives. Paintings of a villa in Boscoreale

Endless wars significantly changed the economy of Italy, and Hannibal's armies caused enormous damage. Agriculture fell into decay. Cheap imported bread made bread production in Italy itself unprofitable. Although here it is worth recalling Weber's remark that "Rome never from the time when he was a policy at all, he was not forced and was not able to live on the products of his own agriculture ”(the area cultivated for bread, apparently, was about 15%). In addition, wars distracted the productive part of the citizens from business. The nobility lived in luxury, and a significant part of the population lived in poverty. In Rome alone, there were about 150,000 unemployed. Their authorities kept, so to speak, at the public expense. Approximately the same number of people, if not more, worked only until lunchtime. All of them had to be calmed somehow, distracted from the most pressing, acute problems, so that they would not arise and would not ask questions. Caesar recognized the right of the masses to bread and circuses. The satirist Juvenal (c. 60-140 AD) wrote indignantly about this: “This people has long since forgotten all worries, and Rome, that once everything handed out: legions, and power, and bunches of lictors, is now restrained and restlessly dreams of only two things: bread and circuses! Officials must unquestioningly follow these rules.

The satirist Martial in one of the epigrams said that the wife of one of the praetors was even forced to file for divorce because of the huge expenses that her husband had to bear. The fact is that the husband’s position and the requirements placed on it had a catastrophic effect on the family’s budget: “I know: he became a praetor, and his Megalesian purple would cost a hundred thousand, no matter how stingy you are on arranging games; there would still be twenty thousand more for the national holiday. But officials often simply had nowhere to go. After all, their fate and career, and often life itself, were in the hands of the emperor. In addition, sometimes the retribution for an unsuccessful or poorly organized spectacle by an official was extremely severe. Caligula (37-41 AD) ordered one overseer who did not like him over gladiatorial battles and persecution to be beaten with chains in front of him for several days in a row. The poor fellow was killed only after everyone felt the "stench of a rotting brain" (Suetonius). After the games arranged by Augustus with his usual scope, all his successors (except Tiberius) began to compete with each other in organizing gladiatorial games. For the sake of advertising and preserving a political face, an official had to go into debt and into his own pocket (especially after the elimination of state surcharges for the organizers of the games under Augustus). The Emperor Trajan (AD 98-117) surpassed them all, whose spectacles were compared by many to those of Jupiter himself. Moreover, these amusements were often accompanied by mass slaughter of people and animals.

Wounded lion

The people got free access to the forum, but they craved blood and circuses. Those became more and more bloody and cruel. How things have changed. Once upon a time, during the censorship of Cato the Elder (184 BC), the noble Roman L. Quinctius Flamininus (consul 192 BC) was punished for unjustified cruelty, since he allowed an act discrediting honor Rome. Proconsul Flamininus at dinner (at the request of a harlot who had never seen a man beheaded) killed one of the condemned. He was accused of insulting the greatness of the Roman people. The episode told by Livy indicates that in the old days the Romans still tried not to allow excessive cruelty. Now they killed dozens and hundreds openly - in front of the people. Rome ceased to be ashamed of butchery and applauded the executioners ... It is worth mentioning that the number of holidays in the year increased in the 2nd century. n. e. to 130, that is, in fact, doubled compared to the era of the republic. The Romans were fascinated by spectacles. Almost all of Rome gathered in a huge circus with 200,000 seats. The excitement of running was incomprehensible to smart and enlightened people. “I don’t understand,” the writer Pliny the Younger wondered, “how one can get carried away with such a boring spectacle.”

Fight of gladiators with lions in the arena

If they were also attracted by the speed of horses or the skill of people, then there would be some sense in this; but they favor rags, they love a rag, and if, during the race in the middle of the competition, “this color is transferred there, and that here, then the passionate sympathy of people will also pass with it.” And then Pliny continues: when I look at those people who are carried away by such a vulgar and empty thing, I feel great satisfaction that I am not covered by it. While the rabble and those who consider themselves serious spend their time in idleness, I devote all my leisure time to literature with great pleasure. Alas, it turned out that it is much easier to attract wild animals with the sounds of a lyre, as Orpheus once did, than to turn the eyes of other people to high literature, history or philosophy. Hortensius, the creator of a poem about the education of wild animals, would have been just right to write a poem about how the Romans could be re-educated, behaving like wild animals. We involuntarily recalled the historian Timaeus, who, describing the life of the Roman people, believed (like Varro) that the very name of Italy came from the Greek word meaning "horned cattle" (of which there are always many). However, another version is also known: the country was named after the bull Itala, who allegedly transported Hercules from Sicily.

Fun richer

I also recall the sharp words of Charles Montesquieu from the work “On the Spirit of Laws”: “In order to defeat the laziness inspired by the climate, laws would have to deprive people of any opportunity to live without working. But in the south of Europe they act in the opposite direction: they put people who want to be idle in a position favorable to the contemplative life, and associate enormous wealth with this position. These people, living in such an abundance that even burdens them, naturally give their surplus to the common people. The latter lost his property; they reward him for this with the opportunity to enjoy idleness; and he eventually comes to love even his poverty.” Indeed, is there a difference? They had a Commodiana, we have a comedian! A comedy that turns into a tragedy before the eyes of the whole world.

In the days of the Roman Republic, there was a law that condemned luxury, severely punishing those who would dare to challenge public opinion. Among the items it was allowed to have only a salt shaker and a sacrificial cup made of silver. One of the noble senators even lost his seat just because he had 10 pounds worth of silverware. But times have changed, and even the people's tribune Mark Drusus (servant of the people) has accumulated more than 10 thousand pounds of silver dishes. It was fabulous money. Under dictators and emperors, the wealth of the nobility became completely defiant, but this was already perceived in the order of things. Rich people did not consider costs, wanting to show off their wealth. They paid big money for silver and gold things (the cost of the work often exceeded the cost of the material itself by 20 times). Unthinkable treasures accumulated in the houses of the Roman nobility. So, Titus Petronius had a ladle with which they scooped wine from a crater, the cost of which was 350,000 gold rubles.

Silverware from the time of Caesarism

True, at one time Cato the Censor tried to stop this process. He even expelled from the Senate many supporters of immoderate luxury, including Lucius Quintius, a former consul, and the brother of the famous "liberator" of Greece - Titus Flamininus. Some famous horsemen also suffered - the equus publicus was taken away from brother Scipio Africanus. But Cato's steps directed against luxury, speculation, and profit had the greatest (and almost scandalous fame) in society. He increased taxes on wealth, insisted on raising prices for women's jewelry, clothes, rich household utensils, raised the price of farming high, etc. Plutarch emphasizes that by these actions he earned the special hatred of rich people. However - and this should be remembered by us - these decisive measures won him the deep gratitude of the people.

Many even praised the censor for being so strict. In gratitude for his services to the people, a statue was erected to him. “Thus, there can be no doubt that luxuria in the Cato scale is the luxuria of the rich, ambitus and avaritia are the vices of noble and rich people, superbia, crudelitas are also vices of the nobility, impudentia and duritudo are the result of corrupting foreign influences, and desidia is a typical feature of those who have been corrupted by long leisure (otium) and who have been taught by such conditions to place their private affairs and their commoda above the interests of the res publica. In conclusion, it is interesting to note that if Caton's set of virtutes (that is, virtues) appears extremely implicitly and is most likely meant to be effective for the semi-legendary times of the domination of mores maiorum (mores of the majority), then all vitia (vices) (nova flagitia - nouveaux riches) are quite real and “have the exact address”: they characterize precisely those still relatively narrow (but, of course, the highest!), sections of Roman society that are corrupted by foreign influences, strive to lead or lead a luxurious lifestyle and ultimately neglect the interests and needs of society generally". It was about a certain part of the higher circles.

Among the concubines. Eastern scene

Such luxury, all these countless expensive amusements and pleasures, cost the state a lot of money. And, as a result, by the end of the existence of the Roman Empire, taxes increased continuously. Theodosius I stated in 383 CE e. that no one can own tax-free property. There was a huge number of regulating and controlling acts. It turned out some kind of vicious circle: the political structure was cracking at the seams, the army began to fall apart. In order to somehow support all this, to preserve at least their foundations and replenish the treasury, it was necessary to increase taxes. At the same time, taxes on the rich decreased, which worsened the already difficult situation of the common people. A lot of duties were imposed on ordinary citizens, reminiscent of the most outright corvée. They were supposed to supply coal, firewood for arsenals and mints, maintain bridges, roads and buildings in good condition, and generally provide the state with their experience and labor without any remuneration on its part. Service in the country, they said in Rome, turned into "something like forced hiring." The upper classes were freed from all this. Corruption flourished among the bureaucracy.

T. Chasserio. Dressing the concubine

It is hard to believe that a civilization that once admired classical Greek literature, history, and philosophy could descend to such tastes? Although it is hardly worth exaggerating the cultural level of the broad masses. Their culture is like a thin layer that disappears very quickly if society suddenly flops into the mud ... Part of Roman society was still trying to follow the ideals of the ancient Greeks. Sports enthusiasts maintained their physical health in gymnasiums and palestras. Some citizens, like Cicero, spent their time in gymnasiums, wrestling, practicing chariot and horseback riding, swimming or rowing. “Every manifestation of dexterity and strength was greeted by the audience with applause,” chroniclers wrote. But those were exceptions. When a country that admired history, philosophy, poetry, literature degrades in this way, then freedom becomes a fiction and an empty phrase. It is clear that no one said a word of protest when 94 AD. e. executed two senators who wrote memoirs about the champions of freedom Trazeya Petya and Helvidia Prisca. Memories Emperor Domitian immediately ordered to burn. “Those who gave this order, of course, believed that such a fire would silence the Roman people, stop freedom-loving speeches in the Senate, strangle the very conscience of the human race. Moreover, the teachers of philosophy were expelled and a ban was imposed on all other sublime sciences, so that henceforth nothing honest could be found anywhere else. We have shown a truly great example of patience. And if past generations saw what unlimited freedom is, then we (see) - (what) such (our) enslavement is, because endless persecution has taken away our ability to communicate, express our thoughts and listen to others. And along with the voice, we would also lose memory itself, if (only the right) to forget was as much in our power as to remain silent. Of course, others continued to love books, but they were in the minority. The crowd loved wine and women. Gordian II had an excellent library - 62 thousand books. However, he spent more time with a glass of wine, in gardens, baths, in groves, everywhere sacrificing himself to 22 concubines, from each of whom he left 3-4 children.

tossed baby

The Romans (especially the well-to-do and wealthy) began to live more and more frankly exclusively for themselves, caring only about satisfying their whims and desires. The Roman population itself is aging and declining. His eyes and heart cease to please the children. Children are increasingly seen as burdensome chores and burdens. In Plautus's comedy The Boastful Warrior, one of the characters, Periplectomenos, receiving his friend Pleusicles at a rich table, objects to the words: "It's a nice thing to have children." Much better, he says, “to be free to be yourself is even nicer.” And therefore he advises him: “Eat and drink with me together, rejoice your soul. The house is free, I am free and I want to live freely.” The friend continues to convince: they say, it would be nice to still have a wife and children, because “to raise children: this is a monument to yourself and your family.” Periplectomenos objected:

I have a large family: in children what

for the need?

I live happily, I'm fine now,

as you wish;

Death will come - I will give my good to

division of his relatives,

Everyone will come to me, about me

take care

And watch how I'm doing and what to me

A little dawn - already here with a question,

how I slept that night.

So they will be children. me they

send gifts;

Whether sacrifice: a part of me

more than they give themselves,

Invited to a feast, breakfast,

dine with them;

Who sent less gifts

ready to fall into despair;

Compete in donations among themselves.

On my mind: "Opened your mouth to mine

property,

That's why they feed each other like that

and give me...

Yes, but whether it be children, how many with them

would suffer!

Vicious and criminal Rome increasingly saw children as a burden. It is better to have some kind of exotic creature, bringing it into your home from distant countries. Increasingly, fish, dogs, wild animals, freaks, crocodiles, peacocks began to take place in the families of the rich (as is now happening in the families of the nouveau riche in Russia). There are known facts when the rich deliberately mutilated children to satisfy their voluptuousness, when innocent girls or young men were given over to reproach.

O. Beardsley. Deprivation of virginity

Know mired in idleness and drunkenness. Society in such conditions is degrading genetically. N. Vasilyeva noted in "The Question of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and Ancient Culture" (1921) that the decline in morals was accompanied by a biological crisis. People grew weak and emaciated, families thinned out, the number of children decreased. The city destroyed the village and corrupted its inhabitants. Although until 131 BC. e. none of the statesmen of Rome paid attention to the population decline (it seems, except for Metellus). Families and healthy relationships between a man and a woman have become a rarity, receding into the background. Rome was degenerating, carried away, as they say, by non-traditional sex relations. In literature, culture, theater, life, depravity and cynicism were planted.

Emperor Vitellius

As the poor became more and more numerous, child-tossing became common in Roman society. Children were often sold, because abandoned children were in danger of death (especially during the crisis of the 3rd-4th centuries AD). By selling their children, the poor not only ensured their survival, but also received some amount of money that could be used in the family, including for feeding and subsistence of the remaining children. Thus, there are known cases of sale of children as a means of paying off the debt of parents. A certain wine merchant Pamonfius, having borrowed a large amount of money, could not pay it off. In order to return her to the archons, he sold all his property, including clothes, but this only paid off half of the debt. And then heartless creditors took away all his children, including minors, and took them into slavery ... Such a document as "Alienation of the daughter" is also known. It talks about how a recently widowed woman, unable to feed her 10-year-old daughter, cedes her for eternity to another couple, so that they would support her as a "legitimate daughter". The legislation of Justinian allowed the sale of children by citizens only "because of extreme poverty, for the sake of subsistence." By the way, it is very curious that under the “Christian” Constantine, the sale of newborn children was allowed, but the “persecutor of Christians” Diocletian strictly forbade the alienation of children from a parent through sale, gift, mortgage, or in any other way.

Portrait of Emperor Commodus

We live "in ancient Rome": cases of sale of children have become widespread. As if in a slave market, in Russia they sell their children to rich families.

But many have entered the taste of an idle, depraved and merry life. “Therefore, the mass of people was forced either to sacrifice to their children the pleasures, the temptation of which was now so strong everywhere, or, on the contrary, they had to sacrifice their children for the sake of pleasures, killing in the bud the offspring that should have continued them in time, and obediently perishing forever at the end of his existence in order to more freely enjoy a brief moment of life. And more often than not, the second solution was chosen. When does the state doom itself to destruction and catastrophe? When the children of the elite, great and worthy parents in the past, became complete nonentities, degenerates. There are many such examples in the history of Rome. Vitellius (69-70), having starved his mother to death, was torn to pieces by the people and thrown into the Tiber. Galba (68–69) killed by Praetorians. The people were deprived of the remnants of their former freedoms, turning into a crowd, the plebeians, the mob.

Roman gladiators salute the emperor

Commodus (180-192 AD), the eldest son of the ruler Marcus Aurelius, a highly moral, decent and intelligent person, becomes emperor. After his death, allegedly from a serious contagious disease (180), the son became the sole emperor. What a bitter irony of fate... The admirer of philosophy, lofty and beautiful ideas not only died from an “ugly disease”, but was also forced to transfer all the reins of government in the country into the hands of his son, “whose spiritual outlook was limited to the circus and pleasures to the level with the taste of grooms and fist wrestlers. How often parents protect their sons and daughters in the wrong place and from the wrong place. The emperor did not allow him to bed for fear that he might become infected. But Commodus had been "infected" for a long time, being prone to wine and fights. They say he was not the son of Marcus Aurelius. The emperor's wife Faustina was a "very loving" lady, and there were persistent rumors about her "adventures". Having barely ascended the throne, Commodus is forced to immediately deal with a conspiracy in which his sister and nephew participate. Then another conspiracy follows - and again the perpetrators have to be executed. Executions follow one after another. The heads of co-prefects, consuls, administrators, etc., etc. fly. They are executed together with their families (Prefect Perenne was hacked to death along with his wife, sister and sons). The emperor brings his father's freedman, Cleander, closer to him, who helps him carry out a quick, quick reprisal. Although what could be more dangerous, it would seem, than to entrust personal protection, the command of an army to someone who is sold publicly at the announcement of a herald. Commodus granted him the title "Dagger". The era of arbitrariness has arrived. Cleander saved up money and bought huge quantities of bread in order to use it as a weapon at the right time - to distribute grain supplies to hungry crowds and thereby attract the people to his side, and then, with the help of the crowds, seize imperial power in Rome.

Upon learning of these plans, Commodus dealt with him. It is quite obvious that such abrupt and inexplicable changes in the highest echelons of power posed a threat to the senators as well. In an effort to replenish the treasury in any way (which he himself emptied), the emperor subjected them to persecution and began to take away their property. But if Marcus Aurelius did this for the good and health of children and the poor, the son calmly lined his own pockets. In addition to everything, he was overcome by megalomania. Commodus declared Rome a personal colony, renaming it Commodiana. The same changes were in store for the Roman legions, the new African flotilla, the city of Carthage, even the Senate of Rome. These metropolitan "fun" caused uprisings and guerrilla warfare in the provinces. In Europe, the Romans were treated as invaders (and agents of the secret military police).

Picture of the revelry of aristocrats

It was also a tragedy that instead of a republic, an oligarchy was established in Rome. This cynical and vile tribe does not know the word - "fatherland". High officials, military commanders, senators and leaders did not give a damn about Plato. They were not concerned with philosophy, but with their own enrichment. Changes in everything - manners, clothes, food, habits. Noble Romans fenced themselves off from their surroundings even when eating. Before, as you remember, there was nothing like this. Almost until the end of the Punic Wars, the masters shared a meal with the servants: everyone ate simple food at the same table. Mostly it was greens and legumes and jelly made from wheat flour, often replacing bread. Among the surviving fragments of the scientist and writer Varro (1st century BC), there is a mention of the tastes that reigned in early Rome: “The grandfathers and great-grandfathers, although the words breathed garlic and onions, but their spirit was high!” However, soon after the conquest of Greece and Asia Minor, wealth and food flowed in a wide stream to Rome and Italy. The life of noble families was filled with pleasure and entertainment. Gluttony, amusements, pleasures, spectacles are usually accompanied by laziness. Sybarism spread in society. However, this is not the sybaritism of the artist.

Who was once born an artist,

That one is always sybaritic in something ...

So let it be over the copper

tripod

The fragrant myrrh is on fire!

V. Mironov

Rome, with a population of more than a million, was sinking ever more noticeably and more frankly into slumber. An idle life became the lot of not only the patricians, but to some extent the plebs. However, there were not so many rich people in Rome. Cicero noted that in Rome, according to the tribune Philip, it is difficult to find even 2000 well-to-do people (oligarchs). But it was they who, perhaps, determined the weather and ordered the music. In Roman society, the philosophy of selfishness and hedonism won. The number of servants grew: captured bakers, cooks, confectioners. She needed to stand out somehow. The future depended on whether their new owners would like their dishes. There was competition and envy. As a result, in a city that recently did not know at all what bread was, they suddenly began to sell several varieties of it, differing not only in quality, but also in taste, color and shape. There were various cookies and sweets for the sweet tooth and gourmets. Approximately around 171 BC. e. culinary art elevated to the rank of science. Sallust wrote that the nobility "was seized by a passion for debauchery, gluttony and other pleasures."

To diversify the table, they “searched the land and the sea; went to bed before they began to feel sleepy; they did not expect either hunger or thirst, or cold, or fatigue, but in their depravity they warned their appearance. Unthinkable feasts rolled up. In the estate of the already mentioned freedman Trimalchio (a character in the comedy of Petronius) there is darkness of money, there is so much land that a falcon cannot fly around, silver dishes that have fallen on the floor are thrown away with garbage, and live thrushes fly out of the belly of a roasted boar (to the delight of the public). They did not sit at the table, but lay. To make it more convenient to eat as much food as possible, the rich ate, undressing to the waist ... Decorating themselves with wreaths of myrtle, ivy, violets and roses, they lay down at the table. Slaves took off their shoes and washed their feet and hands. Forks were not recognized then. The Romans, like the Greeks, ate everything with their hands. According to the custom of the Greeks, feasts ended with grandiose drinking parties. Those present at the table elected the President. For the amusement of the nobility, magicians, actors, dancers, whores were invited.

Red-figure vase. 5th century BC.

The author of the "Book of Satyrs", Petronius, described a picture of the pastime of rich freedmen ... When we finally lay down, young Alexandrian slaves poured snow water on our hands, washed our feet and carefully trimmed the burrs on our fingers. Without interrupting the unpleasant business, they sang incessantly. When he asked for a drink, the obliging boy complied with the request, singing just as piercingly. Pantomime with a choir, not a triclinium of a venerable house! Meanwhile, an exquisite appetizer was served; everyone lay down on a couch, except for the owner Trimalchio himself, who, according to the new fashion, was left with the highest place at the table. In the middle of the table stood a Corinthian bronze donkey with packs containing white and black olives. Two silver dishes towered above the donkey, the name of Trimalchio and the weight of the silver were engraved along the edges. The following describes how everyone enjoyed this luxury. Then they brought him in to the music and laid him down on Trimalchio's small pillows. His shaven head peeked out from his bright red robes, and around his muffled neck was a scarf with wide purple trim and dangling fringes. This made everyone laugh. On her hands was a large gilded ring of pure gold, with soldered iron stars. In order to flaunt his other jewels, he bared his right hand, adorned with a gold wrist and an ivory bracelet. He picked his teeth with a silver toothpick. The boy who followed him brought crystal bones on a table of turpentine wood, where the author noticed something refined: instead of white and black stones, gold and silver denarii were stacked. Then the curly-haired Ethiopians came with little waterskins, like those from which they scatter sand in the amphitheaters, and washed our hands with wine, but no one gave us water. In the confusion, a large silver dish fell: one of the boys picked it up. Noticing this, Trimalchio ordered to hit the slave with cracks, and throw the dish back on the floor. The barman who appeared began to sweep the silver, along with other rubbish, out the door. At this time, the slave brought a silver skeleton arranged so that its folds and vertebrae could move freely in all directions. When he was thrown several times on the table, he, thanks to the movable clutch, assumed various poses. So we all drank and marveled at such exquisite luxury. It is curious that the owner of the house and feast, Trimalchio, became a merchant and entrepreneur in modern times. Once he was a slave and carried logs on his back, but then, thanks to his enterprise, he accumulated large capitals. He produced wool, bred bees and even ordered champignon seeds from India. We see the same thing in today's Russia, where in the recent past such "freedmen" traded flowers, herring, were engaged in fartsovka, were currency traders, but now they have become ministers, prime ministers, deputies.

Amphora depicting a feast

As a result, a rich and satiated public could neither adequately lead the state nor satisfy a woman ... Petronius in the "Satyricon" tells the story of a young man who fell in love with a woman, which is "more beautiful than all pictures and statues." There are no words to describe her beauty: "the eyes are brighter than the stars on a moonless night," and "the mouth is like the mouth of Diana, which Praxiteles invented them." And as for the arms, legs, neck - well, what a swan: with their whiteness "they eclipsed the Parian marble." And when the “democrat” had to “show masculine strength”, the curse of Priapus (sexual deity) was fulfilled, his “demiurge” instead of a fighting pose bowed his head in disgrace. Neither a golden fork from the palace collection, nor a villa in Spain will help here. Impotence struck Rome, as it struck the "transvestite democrats." Petronius gives advice on how to be cured: the patient should adhere to a diet, seek help from the deities (and not get into politics), and also take a phallus smeared with oil with crushed pepper and nettle seed and shove it deep into his anus. Surrounding during this procedure should whip him with nettles on the lower part of his naked body. They say it helps... Epicureans and Stoics intensified the mood of decadence, urging people to burn through life easily, imperceptibly, thoughtlessly, blindly. The advice is: "You can't bring too much intelligence into life without killing life."

However, time will pass, and they themselves will perceive in the philosophy of Epicurus only its hedonistic, most animal part, from which the philosopher himself was far away.

Titian. Danae, on which the golden rain fell

What can I say, even if the great Cicero, moralist, republican, singer of the old way of life and the "covenants of the ancestors", speaking in court in defense of a certain Mark Caelius Rufus (56 BC), a typical young Roman, orator and politician, exclaimed: “Is it really forbidden for young men to love harlots? If anyone thinks so, then what can we say, he has very strict rules and shuns not only our dissolute age, but also what is permitted by the custom of the ancestors. Indeed, when was it otherwise, when it was condemned, when it was forbidden, when it was impossible to do what was possible? I am ready to determine what exactly - but I will not name any woman, let anyone think about it as they want. If some unmarried person opens her house to all who desire it, if she lives openly like a corrupt woman, if she feasts with strange men, and all this in the city, in the gardens, in the crowded Bayes; if, finally, her walk, and outfit, and retinue, and brilliant looks, and free speeches, and hugs, kisses, bathing, riding on the sea, feasts make her see not just a harlot, but a shameless whore, then tell me, Lucius Herennius, when a certain young man is with her, will he be a seducer, and not just a lover? Does it infringe on chastity, and not just satisfy desire? After such a convincing, impassioned speech, the court acquitted this Rufus.

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