The First Indochinese War (Indochinese War) - was fought by France to preserve its Indochinese colonies. The main events of the war took place in Vietnam. Also, hostilities were fought on the territory of Cambodia and Laos, but here they did not have a significant impact on the course of the war. In all cases, France, with the support of local allies (and since 1950 with the support of the United States), fought against local communist rebels who fought for the independence of their countries with the support of China.

The First Indochinese War in Vietnam is known as the War of Resistance - the war of the Vietnamese pro-communist forces, united under the auspices of the political movement "Viet Minh", against the French colonial administration in 1945-1954, which ended with the division of Vietnam into two independent states: the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (capital - Hanoi) and Republic of Vietnam (capital - Saigon).

Brief information about the war

• Date: December 19, 1946 - August 1, 1954.
• Location: Southeast Asia.
• Outcome of the war: Victory of the Viet Minh, Withdrawal of French troops from Vietnam, Division of Vietnam.

Members:

• Opponents: France, State of Vietnam, supported by the United States.
• Allies: Viet Minh, Pathet Lao (since 1950), with the support of the USSR and the PRC.

Side strengths:

• Enemies: ~400,000 soldiers in total
  • French Armed Forces: 190,000
  • Local support units: 55,000
  • Army of the State of Vietnam: 150,000

• Allies: ~450,000 total soldiers
  • Main force: 125,000
  • Regional forces: ~75,000
  • Militia: ~250,000

Military casualties:

• Opponents: France: 75,581 dead, 64,127 wounded, 40,000 captured; State of Vietnam: 419,000 dead, wounded and captured.
• Allies: 300,000 dead, 500,000 wounded, 100,000 captured.

Preconditions for war

During World War II, French Indochina was occupied by Japanese troops. With the weakening of Japan in the former French Indochina, a power vacuum was created, which was filled by the communists. At the end of 1944, they began the formation of armed detachments. The Communist Party of Vietnam was led by Ho Chi Minh, the armed forces during almost the entire conflict was headed by Vo Nguyen Giap.

The course of hostilities

The first incident involving the Viet Minh is considered to be the events of December 24 and 25, 1944, when an armed detachment of communists made a daring attack on French posts in Fukat and Nangan, wisely using relaxation before Christmas. The French lieutenants of the lodging units were killed, and their Vietnamese subordinates (30 and 16 people, respectively) surrendered.

By mid-1945, the Việt Minh controlled a substantial portion of North Vietnamese territory; the number of partisans was already about 10 thousand. Japan's defeat in the World War further weakened the semblance of centralized power in Vietnam. On August 15, in the town of Tanchao, in the area inhabited by mountain tribes (which is especially emphasized in all Vietnamese works on the issue of ethnic minorities), the beginning of an armed struggle was proclaimed. On August 19, the communists occupied Hanoi. The ineffectiveness of the actions of the Japanese and French administrations in 1944-1945 allowed the Vietnamese communists to seize power without major human casualties. France did not want to lose its colonial possessions, and war between the Vietnamese communists and French troops became an obvious prospect.

November 20, 1946 in the North Vietnamese port of Haiphong, a Vietnamese boat was fired from a French warship. On November 21, the French command sent an ultimatum to the leadership of the Viet Minh (Communist Party of Vietnam) demanding that Haiphong be cleared of its presence. After these conditions were not met, the French troops carried out a massive shelling of the city. On December 19, 1946, the French command demanded the disarmament of the Viet Minh forces in Haiphong. Due to the significant superiority in the quality of weapons, the French troops effectively drove the Vietnamese communists out of the large settlements of Vietnam.

By the end of March 1947, the French controlled the main cities, the roads connecting them with each other and the coastal territory. The main stronghold of the communists was the difficult terrain in northern Vietnam on the border with China - Viet Bac. French attempts to defeat this partisan area in 1947 were unsuccessful and led mainly to the wear and tear of military equipment and a decrease in the morale of the soldiers. At the same time, the Việt Minh was accumulating military forces and improving their structure, bringing it to the usual for regular troops. The armed forces of the Vietnamese communists in the period 1946-1950 are estimated at about 60 thousand people. In 1948-1950, the actions of the French troops were in the nature of "cleansing" of certain territories, the small number of French colonial troops did not allow for effective offensive operations deep into the jungle.

In September 1950, the Viet Minh destroyed several French garrisons near the Chinese border. The French troops lost about six thousand people. In 1950, the first 35 American military advisers arrived in Vietnam to help the French. By 1952 their number had grown to two hundred.

In the spring of 1952, the colonial troops went on the defensive and fortified in the most economically important points in northern Vietnam (southern Vietnam was a relatively calm place for the French). The Vietnamese, being confident in their military advantage following the results of 1951, launched a series of unsuccessful attacks on the positions of the French. These battles led to heavy losses of the attackers from heavy weapons (napalm, heavy artillery, river and sea warships). At the end of 1952, the French launched an offensive operation and captured the town of Hoa Binh, located forty kilometers from the line of defensive lines. But at the beginning of 1953, due to problems with the supply of troops (the Vietnamese blocked the road and the river route, shot down enemy transport aircraft), the garrison had to be evacuated with heavy losses. In the autumn of 1952, the Việt Minh launched an offensive against the sparse French fortifications along the western border of Vietnam. The colonial troops tried unsuccessfully to divert the attention of the Vietnamese from these fortifications by advancing on the supply bases in Viet Bac. The French had few forces to conduct an effective offensive operation, and they had to retreat without achieving their goals.

Battle of Dien Bien Phu

In the spring of 1953, Vietnamese communist troops invaded neighboring Laos, destroying the French colonial and Laotian garrisons. This operation exposed the weak point of the French colonial forces. On the one hand, the French tried to protect Laos, on the other hand, military bases in the Hanoi region could not provide significant assistance to the attacked. In order to regain the lost initiative and protect Laos from the Vietnamese communists, at the end of 1953, French troops landed several thousand soldiers in the settlement of Dien Bien Phu (subsequently, the size of the garrison changed). The purpose of the garrison was to interfere with the supply chain of the Viet Minh troops in northern Laos. In parallel, an operation was planned to fight partisans in central Vietnam, Operation Atlante. It began on schedule, January 20, mainly by the forces of the Vietnamese pro-French formations; they fought poorly, suffered heavy losses in battles and as a result of desertion, and until mid-March, despite the transfer of reinforcements, no positive changes were achieved in Annam. In December 1953 - January 1954, the Viet Minh concentrated five divisions near Dien Bien Phu, while the French expected a maximum of two. At the same time, military operations of low intensity were going on in central Vietnam and in Laos; the initiative in these theaters of military operations belonged to the Vietnamese communists, the purpose of the operations was to divert French forces from the Dien Bien Phu garrison. To supply their forces, the partisans cut a new 100-kilometer route through the jungle and built a transshipment base 55 km from the point of application of forces. 100,000 coolies were mobilized, carrying 20,000 tons of rice alone during the campaign. At the same time, the French air supply of Dien Bien Phu was insufficient for the garrison. The advantage of the Vietnamese guerrillas in numbers and supplies near Dien Bien Phu allowed them to win a decisive battle against the French troops. As a result of the battle, which lasted from March 13 to May 7, 1954, the French garrison of about ten thousand people surrendered to the Vietnamese. The operation itself lasted 209 days, the military component - 54 days.

Results of the First Indochina War

Main article: Geneva Accords (1954)

Geneva Conference (1954) - an international conference held in Geneva from April 26 to July 21, 1954 with the participation of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, China, Great Britain, the USA and France, representatives of the PRC, the DRV, Cambodia, Laos and South Vietnam.

The conference dealt with Korean and Indochinese issues. Discussions on the issue of Korean reunification ended in vain. The second half of the conference was devoted to the fate of Indochina. Its course was greatly influenced by the defeat of the French expeditionary force at Dien Bien Phu, which occurred directly during the conference. On July 21, the Geneva Accords were concluded, which ended the French colonial war in Indochina and determined the future fate of the former French colonies in the region. The agreements, in particular, provided:

• ceasefire;
• the temporary division of Vietnam into two parts along the 17th parallel (where a demilitarized zone was created), with the regrouping of the Vietnam People's Army to the north and the forces of the French Union to the south;
• holding free elections in July 1956 in both parts of the country to determine the future political regime and the reunification of the country;
• demilitarization and neutrality of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia;
• a ban on the supply of weapons, ammunition and military materials to these countries;
• the creation of an International Monitoring Commission to oversee the implementation of the agreements.

The Geneva Accords were not signed by the United States.

The implementation of the Geneva Accords was disrupted by the proclamation in October 1955 of the Republic of Vietnam in the southern part of Vietnam and the refusal of the President of that country, Ngo Dinh Diem, to hold free elections. The International Control Commission failed to fulfill its functions and was virtually inactive. During the Second Indochina War, the 1954 agreements were constantly violated by the United States and North Vietnam.

After the Second World War, in the context of a sharp confrontation between East and West, the US government, based on geostrategic interests, supported the Kuomintang group during the civil war in China in 1948-1949, providing it with financial resources, weapons and advisers. And after the defeat and evacuation to the island of Taiwan, they strongly supported the so-called New China. Among other things, aviation, including secret units, was widely used in the Cold War of the "two Chinas".

Chinese crew on the background of the B-17 before the next flight

In 1952, the CIA trained 5 Taiwanese pilots and two mechanics at air bases in Japan to perform illegal flights to drop paratroopers and equipment over mainland China. And the following year, a Special Unit was organized Special Operations, where two disarmed B-17s were transferred from the dummy airline Western Enterprises. On July 15, 1956, the unit was renamed the Technical Development Group (at that time it included 3 B-17 and 3 B-26), however, for the purpose of secrecy, all personnel wore the emblems of the 34th Taiwan Air Force Squadron "Bat".

The aircraft of the unit were quite active in subversive work and, accordingly, suffered rather large losses - for example, from 1954 to 1959, the Air Force and Air Defense of the PRC shot down 3 B-17s:

May 26, 1954 - anti-aircraft artillery fire over Fujan, 4 crew members were killed;
- June 22, 1956 - over Jainghi by a MiG-17 fighter, 11 people were killed;
- May 29, 1957 - a MiG-17PF fighter over Guangdong killed 14 people.

In addition to the Taiwanese Flying Fortresses proper, a pair of B-17s, which belonged to the CIA, were based on the island for a short time. In 1957, the US decided to support the Tibetan uprising against communist China. To continue the fight, they needed trained agents and weapons. It was they who, in theory, were supposed to be delivered by B-17s. The machines were transferred from the US Air Force stocks, all identification marks and numbers were painted over on them, and they themselves were repainted black (since they had to fly mainly at night). In mid-September, one aircraft was flown to Clark Field Air Base in the Philippines. Five Polish émigré pilots were retrained here, who were originally supposed to be used to drop agents in Eastern Europe. After retraining, the B-17 was transferred to Okinawa, where Tibetan agents were being trained. At least two B-17 flights to Tibet are known: in early October 1957 and in early November 1957. Both flights were made with an intermediate landing at the Kurmitola airfield (East Pakistan). In 1958, the B-17s were replaced by the more suitable C-118A.

The squadron also had several B-26s, which were used exclusively for scattering leaflets and other literature. Three CIA B-26s were also based in Taiwan, which were used from February 1953 to infiltrate North Korean airspace from China.

B-26 from the Taiwan Air Force

Of these machines, only one aircraft (43-22633) returned to Clark Field airbase, the other two were lost - 43-22634 crashed during a training flight over the Taiwan Strait on April 14, 1955, and 43-22622 crashed in Shenyang Province (PRC) during time of night departure on November 5, 1957

In addition, in the late 50s and early 60s, the CIA used one unmarked RB-69A for electronic intelligence. The aircraft was operated by a Chinese crew, flew from the Taipei airfield, landed at the Kunsan airbase (South Korea) and in Thailand.

Electronic intelligence was also carried out by the Lockheed crew C-130B-II 59-1531 (serial number 3579), formally transferred from the US Air Force to Air Asia, headquartered in Tainan. The crew flew sorties on the border with China from February 1 to October 25, 1965.

Which is attributed to the Second Indochina War. It was the first conflict to have almost every aspect of it photographed. However, historically Indochina was a zone of French influence. The United States came to replace the French, as if bringing with it the Newest Era to replace modernity, the New Age, which had gone along with the colonial French administration.

In general, by 1939 the state of the entire French colonial empire was sad. Everywhere, the indigenous population demanded investments from the metropolis and more intensive development of the territories. France was more concerned with affairs in Europe. By the end of World War II, the colonies needed only a pretext for war, and they got it.

But first things first.

Colonies - the base of the revival of France // The situation in France at the beginning of the war

On December 19, 1946, the First Indochina War began. France made a desperate attempt to maintain control over its possessions in Southeast Asia. Independence was out of the question simply because during the Second World War France was greatly helped by the colonies. Charles de Gaulle wrote in his memoirs that without the help of the French colonies it would have been extremely difficult to eliminate the acute food crisis that arose in the country by the end of the war.

French colonial empire in 1938

De Gaulle wanted to turn the colonial empire into a French Union

But the resources of the colonies were not just to feed the mother country: “Among the terrible trials,” General de Gaulle said in June 1942, “the French nation realized that there was one factor that was especially important for its future and absolutely necessary for its greatness. That factor is the French empire. First of all, because it was she who was the original base for the revival of France.

Death of empire or reform

De Gaulle was the main ideologist of France's turn towards the colonies. During the war, the French Committee of National Liberation (FCLN) drew up plans for reform that culminated in the Brazzaville Conference of 1944: they wanted to turn the empire into a union, decentralize, transfer powers to local elites, and improve living standards in the colonies. Thus, the FKNO planned to strike a balance between national liberation sentiments in the colonies and the desire of the French elite to leave everything as it was before.

De Gaulle maneuvered between the revolution in the colonies and the elites in the metropolis

It is curious that the need to preserve the French and British empires, de Gaulle's supporters justified the need to maintain a balance in the world after the war and to prevent a repetition of the mistake of the Versailles Peace Treaty. They also stated that it is impossible to allow the expansion of the list of weak and small peoples who are simply incapable of self-government and protection of their territories of interests. Simply put, it's sad to say, but the Gaullists foresaw the emergence of many "failed states".

Charles de Gaulle opens the Brazzaville Conference, 1944

The results of the conference were positively received by the left in France, and in the colonies the results of Brazzaville awakened faith in the future. Colonial circles remained dissatisfied, for whom the resolution of the congress of governors of the colonies was the limit of concessions. Moreover, the French local administrations quite often ignored the innovations of the FKNO and worked in the old fashioned way. Big capital in the colonies was also not enthusiastic and did not really help to reorganize life on the ground - they were afraid of the revolution.

Were reforms possible? // Immediate causes of the collapse of the empire

The plans of the FKNO were shattered by harsh reality. Answering the question about chairs right away: apparently not. Not in the case of France. Especially when centrifugal processes have been launched for a long time, and then accelerated by the war. About what happened specifically between France and Indochina - a little later, now - the overall picture.

Factors in the growth of tension in the colonies were not only the conservative part of the elite of the metropolis. Great Britain, and especially the United States, added fuel, desiring the destruction of the old-fashioned colonial system. This, in fact, was to be expected from a country based, among other things, on the principle of free trade. The old borders prevented businesses from investing in territories and increasing trade (in the end, to put it mildly, not in favor of the ex-colonies). In addition, let's not forget about the existence (for 1945 not yet officially) of the enemy in the form of the USSR.

The Second World War predictably worsened the state of economic relations between the mother country and the colonies: in 1945, the volume of imports from France to the colonies amounted to 20% of all imports against 62% in 1939. Exports to France also fell during the war years: from 64% to 51%. This did not contribute to the creation of the French Union.

French paratroopers watch the landing of their colleagues, November 1953

The colonies were pushed towards independence by the fact that during the war years the development of agriculture and industry accelerated in them. This was, of course, largely a forced measure on the part of conservative French businessmen to help the metropolis.

Nevertheless, on October 13, 1946, as a result of a referendum, both in the mother country and in the colonies, the Fourth Republic and the French Union were created. Characteristically, in Morocco and Tunisia, where only French citizens could vote, 70% and 73% of those who voted voted against the new constitution. In two months and six days, the war in Indochina will begin - the second nail in the coffin of the French Union after the events of the 1940s in the Middle East. The rather ambitious project of the Union lasted 12 years.

"Civilization" and "savages". Ch. 2 // Indochina under French rule

As early as the second half of the 19th century, France began to colonize Eastern Indochina. In the period from 1858 to 1884, France conquered the territory of Vietnam, divided into the colony of Cochin China and the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. Also under the control of France were the protectorates of Cambodia and Laos.

The petty feudal lords of Indochina, according to the plan, were supposed to help the French

In 1887, the "Indochinese Union" was created - modern Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. At the head of the colony was placed a governor-general representing the French president. In addition, the French colonial authorities left the imperial court in Vietnam and the royal courts in Cambodia and Laos, and also retained the privileges of numerous petty feudal lords, who, according to the plans of the colonial administrators, were supposed to help the French authorities in managing and maintaining order in the colonies.

And they really helped. In the provinces of French Indochina, uprisings against the colonial authorities broke out more than once, but they were harshly suppressed with the involvement of native and French troops. Nevertheless, as early as the first quarter of the 20th century, revolutionary ideas began to penetrate into French Indochina, which found supporters among representatives of the local intelligentsia. And although the right was more influential before the Second World War, after the expulsion of the Japanese, the communists became the main force of resistance.

On December 19, 1946, the French command demanded that the leadership of the DRV disarm the armed formations of the Viet Minh in Haiphong. And again the predictable decisive refusal of the DRV. On the same day, the French armed forces began shelling the Vietnamese capital of Hanoi. The fighting on the territory of Hanoi lasted two months - until February 1947. Using force superiority, the French were able to take control of the main cities of North Vietnam and block key roads. The communists retreated to the Vietbac region, where they began guerrilla warfare and preparations for a retaliatory strike.

French landing before the battle in Dien Bien Phu

The French survived Vietnam 10 years before the Americans

Thus began the First Indochinese War, which lasted eight years and ended in the complete defeat of France. In this war, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was opposed not only by the French expeditionary forces and colonial troops with a total number of 190 thousand soldiers and officers and another 55 thousand people in auxiliary units, but also by the Army of the State of Vietnam, created in 1949 in the south of the country and under the control of the French.

The number of South Vietnamese troops was about 150 thousand troops, but their training and motivation were noticeably lower than that of the French and the army of the DRV.

Break in the war

In October 1947, French troops attempted to take control of Vietbac, but faced heavy resistance. The command of the DRV forces used the retreat to Vietbac to strengthen their army and raise the level of its training. In the fall of 1949, the Viet Minh armed forces launched a large-scale offensive for the first time in three years after the start of the war and were able to take control of a number of important settlements. The autumn victories of 1949 marked the beginning of a turning point in the Indochina War.

Young recruits "Khmer Serey" (Khmer Free)

Gradually, the war became more and more difficult for France and required more and more effort. Moreover, on the side of the Viet Minh, the Khmer Issarak rebels (Independent Khmers, allies of the Khmer Serey and enemies "") entered the guerrilla war with the French in Cambodia, and in Laos - fighters of the front "Pathet Lao". In turn, France sent more and more troops to Vietnam, including units and formations from its African colonies. The financial costs of the French government for the conduct of hostilities also grew, which caused dissatisfaction with the French society, in the first place, the left forces.

By the arrival of the Americans, the Vietnamese were perfect partisans

In January 1950, the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China recognized the government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as the sole legitimate authority of the Vietnamese people. Assistance to Vietnamese patriots began to arrive from the USSR and China. As a result, the position of the Viet Minh was significantly strengthened. In October 1950, the French troops suffered a crushing defeat near Cao Bang, losing about seven thousand people killed and wounded. On October 21, 1950, French troops were forced out across the Ka (Red River) River.

Too late for half measures

On December 22, 1950, the French government was forced to recognize the sovereignty of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam within the French Union. But this step of the colonialists no longer suited the communists. The Vietnamese communists hoped to liberate the whole of Vietnam from the French, that is, also the southern one - the State of Vietnam. Therefore, in early 1951, the Vietnam People's Army launched an offensive. However, French troops were able to repel the attack.

Point in the Vietnamese question // Defeat at Dien Bien Phu

Four divisions of the North Vietnamese army participated in the battle of Dien Bien Phu, and it lasted 54 days - from March 13 to May 7, 1954. As a result of numerous mistakes made by the French command, the North Vietnamese troops inflicted a crushing defeat on France. 2293 French soldiers and officers were killed, 10,893 French soldiers were captured.

Light tank M24 Chaffee in French service, Dien Bien Phu area

The defeat of France in Indochina is another evidence of the beginning new era

The defeat at Dien Bien Phu actually put an end to France's plans to maintain dominance in Indochina. The reputation of one of the world's strongest colonial powers in the past has been dealt a severe blow. More than 10,000 French troops ended up in Vietnamese captivity.

In this situation, Ho Chi Minh, who was in Geneva at the conference, managed to force the French leadership to sign a ceasefire agreement. Vietnam was temporarily divided into two parts along the 17th parallel. In accordance with this decision, the armed forces of the Viet Minh were withdrawn to the north, and the troops of the State of Vietnam and France - to the south of the country. By July 1954, the First Indochina War, which had lasted eight years, was over.

French-Vietnamese medics treating a wounded Viet Minh militiaman (1954)

The defeat of France in the First Indochina War was another sign of the beginning of a new era. Decolonization could no longer be stopped, especially by force.

France was defeated despite an initially higher level of training, an incomparably better level of weapons and serious assistance from other Western countries, including Great Britain and the United States.

The Roots of Colonial Policy (France) // Prehistory

Having spoken about the desire of the peoples of Indochina for independence as the cause of the conflict, we have not looked very far into the past. In short: the reason for the national liberation struggle is not the desire for independence, but the fact that independence was once taken away. Despite the terrible banality, looking at any national liberation movement (whether in an overseas colony, in a continental empire or in a tyranny) from such an angle, one has to look earlier and wider.

The underlying causes of the conflict in Indochina in 1946-1954 lie in the essence of colonialism. France, subjugating vast territories, sought to spread its influence no worse than the British, provide themselves with valuable goods from the colonies, create conditions for trade and along the way spread cultural and religious influence. How did it happen that the European powers needed colonies at all? Let's look at the example of France, since we started.

The First Crusade is seen as the beginning of colonialism

For the purposes of the French, both in the 16th-18th centuries and in the 19th-20th centuries, one can guess what happened, oddly enough, back in the Middle Ages during the first Crusade. What happened in Clermont in 1095, as in French historiography, is considered to be the beginning of the colonial policy of France. Why?

Pope Urban II at the head of the Clermont Cathedral, miniature, c. 1474

The crusaders wanted to extend their influence to more lands, weakening Byzantium and the Orthodox Church; to provide themselves with valuable goods from the east, creating better conditions for Mediterranean trade; and, of course, to find land for landless nobles, along the way - without this, nowhere - spreading culture: the French language, law, ideas and trade dominated the states of the crusaders.

Chivalry and Catholicism - Witnesses of the Common Destiny of Europe

In addition to material factors, when we talk about people in general and especially about medieval Europeans, one cannot ignore the spiritual factor. From the entire huge layer of meanings of Christianity, we single out the following within the framework of the article: the Western Middle Ages lived in the paradigm of religious opposition of Roman Catholic truth to all possible errors. Everything that did not belong to the first fell into the second category: pagans, heretics, Orthodox, Muslims - the list can be continued for a long time.

Echoes of the Crusades

The external and internal spiritual struggle of "light" and "darkness", reflected in the entire perception of reality, took place against the backdrop of constant strife, monotonous cyclicity and hopelessness of a short life.

Since 1096, after the call of the Bishop of Rome, Christians have faced a completely different environment en masse. In intense interaction with a completely different discourse, the multilingual army of crusaders and hordes of pilgrims felt their commonality. In short, what began at the end of the 11th century is not just tough men with swords and descriptions of battles. More important for us, mere mortals, are the changes in everyday life that took place then.

Civilian Early Modernity

It makes no sense to describe in detail what happened to Europe next. About the most important thing - the development of capitalism according to the versions of the classics of sociology and - we have already written. Yes, and about Marx one way or another said.

"Civilite" is a purely European phenomenon

Society will become more and more secular. But it will remain in the cultural memory of Europe: chivalry and the Roman Catholic Church are evidence of a certain stage in the development of Western society - a stage that all the great peoples of the West have equally gone through.

Font "Civilité" in a French courtly book, 1785

In the 16th century, during the Early Modern period, the result of the medieval development of society received its own concept - "civilité" (courtesy), the verb "civiliser" (soften morals, enlighten) was also in use. At the same time, the courtier, courtly (literally - "amiable "," courtesy") culture. "Civilité" is gaining incredible popularity thanks to a small book by the philosopher Erasmus of Rotterdam (1464 - 1536) "De civilitate morum puerilium" (On the decency of children's morals).

E. Leighton. Tristan and Isolde. The story of their love is a typical example of courtly love and the emancipation of individuality in the Middle Ages.

The manual for aristocratic children became a bestseller. Sociologist Norbert Elias (On the Process of Civilization) writes that Erasmus' book was published more than 30 times within six years. In total there were about 130 reissues! "The total number of translations, imitations and transcriptions is boundless." This reaction to the instruction on good manners is symptomatic of a clear change in how Europeans thought about their society.

Alas, changes in thinking, life and comprehension of what is happening is what is sometimes forgotten in the Early Modern Age behind vivid episodes of exciting adventures, depictions of battles or horrors.

The Meaning of the Pervasive "Millers," "Courtesy," and "Courtesy"

The concept of "civilité" in modern times is, as Elias wrote, the expression and symbol of a social formation that embraced various nationalities and, like the church, used one common language - first Italian, and then increasingly French. These languages ​​\u200b\u200bhave taken over the function which was previously carried out by Latin. It was in them that both European unity, built on a new, social foundation, and a new social formation, as if forming its backbone - court society. The position, self-consciousness and character of this society and found their expression in the concept of "civilité ". And, recall, Werner Sombart even led out of the development of luxury at the court of the French king

God help! Edmund Leighton, 1900. Late Victorian view of a Pre-Raphaelite painter of a lady courting a knight going into battle

“Civilization” arose from “civilité”, and if the latter is a property, then the former is a process of changing the state of society or part of this process in which we ourselves take part. Just as in the Middle Ages, there was an opposition of Roman Catholic truth and heresies, Modern times give rise to "civilized" and "uncivilized". Usually people have in mind something, respectively, "positive" and "negative". Elias argued that in fact we are dealing with different stages of ongoing development, and not opposition.

That is, New time, or Modernity has two maxims. From the "barbarian" to the "civilized" state, for example, a child from a noble family must go. Elias has been criticized for such views by post-colonial theorists, since looking at “civilization” as an upward movement can create a “top-down” view of those who do not meet European standards of etiquette.

Civilization and savages Part 1 //Robinson and Friday

Inspired by the pernicious example of Elias and strongly generalizing the policy of European states in modern times, one can see that for about the 15th-19th centuries, the indigenous population of Africa, Asia, Australia and America were not even considered by Europeans as people. At best, they were seen as savages. From the point of view of civilization, a savage is an unenlightened and unspiritual being, in the sense that there is no inner light in him, the light of reason and rationality.

If Robinson Crusoe were a state, then it would be a colonial empire

If the reference savage is Friday, then the reference European of the New Age is Robinson Crusoe from Daniel Defoe's famous book of 1719. Robinson, finding himself alone on a desert island, reproduces around him the society of the New Age in miniature: he has a good house, he sews his own clothes, he sows barley and rice. And most revolutionary for the average native, he tames wild goats, creating a stable source of milk.

Robinson Crusoe Saves Friday

Friday lives in nature, but Robinson successfully tamed both inanimate and living nature, and relying only on himself - is he a real European.? he would have received the result "Colonial empire of modern times".

Civilization has its own character

And so are his traits. Rationality, self-sufficiency, resourcefulness, arrogance, bias and arrogance. The last three under an hour lead to a contemptuous attitude towards other peoples and races. But in general, all these traits can be both positive and negative in different circumstances and points of view.

The French in Egypt at the beginning of the 19th century. considered barbarians from the Middle Ages

As a separate manifestation - the behavior of the revolutionary army of General Bonaparte in Egypt. The French really thought that they were in the Middle Ages, where nothing had changed since the time of the Crusades. Therefore, they thought that locals could be punished for some misdeeds by European medieval methods. For example, cut off the right hand (which the knight holds the sword-cross), and then kill the unfortunate. The locals, shocked by the senseless cruelty in their opinion, did not understand anything and mistook the French for medieval barbarians. And they were right in a way. Of the changes: new weapons and uniforms, and the concept of God was "replaced" by civilization.

The right to “kill the infidels” in modern times is the right to subjugate uncivilized peoples. This right is substantiated partly by doubts about the presence of a soul in the creatures encountered across the oceans. And if they don’t have a soul, then they are not people at all, and you can do whatever you want with them: the image of God, the value of life, rights are not about them.

French Zouave, ca. 1870. Zouaves - light, brave and terrible in battle infantry of the colonial troops of France. Hired under a contract

Without justifying immoral acts, we will only say that the masses of Europeans had reasons to be dumbfounded and not even try to understand a foreign culture. Let's say, to realize that someone can develop for several millennia without the idea of ​​God, that is, without reflection, (self)criticism, internal throwing is very difficult. But this is exactly China (generalizing).

In the modern period (after 1789) there is a turning point in relation to human rights. We are interested in Kipling's poem about the fate of a subject of the empire "The White Man's Burden", or "The White Man's Burden" (1899), which, as it seemed to many in the 19th century and still seems to justify the expansion of British colonialism. They say that any crimes against the subordinate population are still not as significant as the price that a subject of Britain, France or the USA pays (they had just captured the Philippines by that time) for being just like that.

Caricature-response to Kipling. John Bull and Uncle Sam to drag the "white man's burden" - carry a variety of non-Europeans to civilization

You don’t need to understand Kipling to slowly read the poem in the original or even in Russian to understand that the poem is really very ambiguous. But considering that Kipling grew up in India and loved its people, and in general he was distinguished by sympathy for the peoples of the colonies, most likely Kipling really meant that no impunity is worth the meaninglessness of existence.

Your lot is the burden of the Whites!
The reward of the Awards -
Contempt of the native state
And the malice of the herds.

You (oh, what a wind!)
You will light the lamp of the Mind,
To listen:
"We love the Egyptian darkness!"

“They cannot represent themselves, they must be represented by others”

Approximately 180 years after the start of Napoleon's campaign in Egypt, the American literary critic of Palestinian origin Edward Said publishes the book Orientalism. The concept of art and science (orientalist - orientalist) is enriched with political and cultural meanings.

The robbery of Egypt by Bonaparte was quite in line with Orientalism

The title of this part is the same quote from Karl Marx that was taken by Said as an epigraph to the book. According to Said, Orientalism is a political, sociological, ideological, military and scientific representation. Unlike presentation, representation displaces the subject of research, the subject itself, and replaces it with figurative constructions. The attitudes of Orientalism logically follow from what was described above: the East cannot speak for itself, cannot present itself, it needs to be spoken for, represented, and therefore needs European science.

Ferdinand Max Bredt. Turkish women.

In other words, Orientalism (in all manifestations) does not depict the East as a reality, a natural given, does not describe it as a region. Instead of the full picture, we see its retouched part - diligent attempts to fit the picture to prejudice and ideology. The poured occupies an organic place in the already existing system of knowledge about the East.

The representation of the Orient undermines the very possibility of knowing its essence. The fact that a significant part of European civilization perceives a person from the East through the prism of a "savage" undermines the very possibility of knowing the essence of culture. And it doesn’t matter how the “savage”, who has become almost an archetype, is viewed: positively, like Rousseau, or negatively, as Defoe’s cannibal tribe is shown.

East fulfills any desire

In the 19th century, the writer's use of the word "Eastern" involuntarily conjured up associations with sensuality, backwardness, uncivilization, a tendency to despotism, and so on. A bright line is the perception of the East as a place of emancipation, fantasies and erotic desires.

Eugene Delacroix. Death of Sardanapalus. 1827

In the 20th century, the view of the East and the Arabs did not change: the mention of the East either caused fear (“yellow threat”, “Mongolian hordes”, “swarty dominions”), or the need to keep it under control (at the expense of sic! appeasement, research, development, occupation).

Are the stereotypes true?

Orientalism can be hidden and explicit. The latter is reflected in politics and ideology. Hidden orientalism at the same time manifests itself in unconscious perception.

All this is true of France's actions in Asia and Africa. We emphasize that we mean not only the government, but France in general. The very possibility of creating a French Union is the result of political orientalism as a way of communication with the East in particular and with the colonies in general. Such communication is characterized by the dominance of the Western style, understanding, the Western nature of judgments, assessments and views.

Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres. Odalisque and slave. 1839

So, after centuries of Western cultural (and military) hegemony, is it any wonder that in the East you can find everything that was associated with it before? It is unnecessary to list the associations - it's just an image of a "savage", created under the influence of medieval community, Christianity and urban culture.

Orientalism ultimately manifests itself as dominium, power-possession, and the right to this power is indisputable. The most chronologically oldest example, the first crusade, is in this respect identical to the one with which the article began - the First Indochinese War. In both cases, there was a struggle not only for the opportunity to benefit from these territories, but also simply to dispose of something simply because it is so, for a variety of reasons, you like it.

In addition to the books mentioned in the text, the following were also used: "The Fate of the Empire: An Essay on the Colonial Expansion of France in the 16th-20th Centuries." Peter Cherkasov; "History of a private life. In 5 volumes" edited by Philippe Ariès and Georges Duby.

VIETNAM WAR - an armed clash on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia, which began in the late 1950s as a guerrilla civil war in South Vietnam and escalated after 1965 into an international conflict involving the United States and North Vietnam

In the spring of 1954, a meeting was convened in Geneva to discuss the conditions for ending the war in Indochina (1946-1954), which was attended, on the one hand, by representatives of the national liberation forces and the Communists of Vietnam, and on the other, by the French colonial government and its supporters. The meeting opened on May 7, the day the French military base at Dien Bien Phu fell. The meeting was attended by representatives of France, Great Britain, the USA, the USSR, China, Cambodia, Laos, as well as the Vietnamese government of Bao Dai, supported by the French, and the government of the Viet Minh (League for the struggle for the independence of Vietnam), headed by Ho Chi Minh.

The main points of the agreement on Vietnam provided: 1) the temporary division of the country into two parts approximately along the 17th parallel and the establishment of a demilitarized zone between them; 2) a ban on the buildup of armaments in both parts of the country; 3) creation of an international control commission consisting of representatives of India, Poland and Canada; 4) holding on July 20, 1956, general elections to the parliament of a united Vietnam. The United States and the Bao Dai government refused to sign the agreement, but the American side assured that it would not resort to forceful methods to disrupt it.

Ho Chi Minh (May 19, 1890, Kimlien, Namdan County, Nghe An Province, French Indochina September 2, 1969, Hanoi, DRV) Vietnamese politician and follower of Marxism-Leninism, leader of the August Revolution in Vietnam, first president of North Vietnam, creator of the Viet Cong and Viet Minh Marxist philosopher.

In South Vietnam, the French were replaced by the United States, which viewed South Vietnam as the main link in the security system in the region. The American doctrine of "dominoes" assumed that if South Vietnam became communist, then all neighboring states would fall under the control of the communists. southeast Asia

Ngo Dinh Diem, a well-known nationalist figure with a high reputation in the United States, became the Prime Minister of South Vietnam. At first, Ngo Dinh Diem's ​​position was very precarious due to strife among his supporters, due to the clash of interests of the religious and political sects that dominated various regions of the country, and also because of the long-standing antagonism between the southerners, the inhabitants of Central Vietnam and, as a rule, more educated and politically active northerners. Diem succeeded in consolidating his power by the end of 1955, splitting the camps of opponents by force of arms, crushing the resistance of various sects, developing a public works program, and beginning a limited land reform. After that, the prime minister held a referendum, removed Bao Dai from power and proclaimed himself head of state. However, starting from the late 1950s, economic stagnation began to grow in the country, repression, corruption, and discrimination against Buddhists and southerners intensified. Nevertheless, the United States continued to provide the government of Ngo Dinh Diem with all possible support.

In 1956, Ngo Dinh Diem, with the tacit support of the United States, refused to hold a national referendum on the question of the reunification of the country. Convinced that the peaceful unification of the country has no prospects, the Vietnamese nationalist and communist forces launched an insurgency in rural areas of South Vietnam. The political leadership of the movement was carried out from North Vietnam, and in practice the rebels were led by former members of the Viet Minh, who remained after the partition of the country in South Vietnam and went underground. After the beginning of the uprising, southerners joined him, who fled to the north after 1954 and underwent political and military training there. Well versed in local conditions, knowing people and even linguistic dialects, the rebels tried to enlist the support of the peasants by promising them land (Ngo Dinh Diem's ​​limited land reform did not have the desired effect) and appealing to their national feelings.

In December 1960, as it became apparent that the Ngo Dinh Diem regime was gradually losing control of the countryside, North Vietnam announced that the rebels were uniting in the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF), a communist-led coalition that included various religious, nationalist, and social factions. . The armed wing of the NLF, known as the National Liberation Army, consisted of local militia, provincial militias, and elite shock battalions. The South Vietnamese government called these forces the Viet Cong (using this term to refer to all Vietnamese communists). The political program of the NLF was to replace the Ngo Dinh Diem regime with a democratic government, carry out agrarian reform, pursue South Vietnam's policy of neutrality in the international arena, and finally unite the country through the negotiation process.

In 1961, the Viet Cong controlled a large area of ​​South Vietnam and could almost at any time block traffic on the roads of the country. American military advisers were convinced that a large-scale invasion from the north, as was the case in Korea, should be expected, and they recommended that Ngo Dinh Diem create a regular army with an extensive command and control system, equip it with heavy weapons and artillery. But such an army was unable to effectively resist the swift attacks of the guerrillas. Thus, the maintenance of security in rural areas fell on the shoulders of a poorly trained and poorly armed national police, which, moreover, often managed to infiltrate the guerrillas. Another serious problem was the massive flow of weapons into the hands of the Viet Cong, either during the fighting or through defectors.

The rapid weakening of the positions of the South Vietnamese government forced the United States to provide him with additional military assistance in 1961, which made it possible in 1962 to temporarily improve the situation. To support military operations, Ngo Dinh Diem launched a "strategic villages" program that included building defensive structures in the villages, training local self-defense units to repel Viet Cong attacks before the arrival of government troops, and turning them into centers of health, secondary education and agricultural training . It was assumed that, in the end, the peasants would stop supplying the partisans with food and supplying them with recruits and information. However, the social situation of the peasants almost did not change for the better, so the government was unable to protect the “strategic villages” from partisan attacks, and corrupt officials often robbed the rural population.

In 1963, in the face of the intensification of the militant Buddhist opposition and under American pressure to change the political course, Ngo Dinh Diem was removed as a result of the first of a series of military coups. His successors focused on strengthening security, primarily in the Saigon area, but by 1964 the central government more or less controlled only 8 of the 45 South Vietnamese provinces, and the Viet Cong pressed government troops in almost all other parts of the country. Although thousands of Viet Cong dead were officially reported, the number of partisans, taking into account only their permanent contingent, was estimated at 35 thousand people. In addition, these regular guerrilla forces were believed to be supported by armed detachments numbering ca. 80 thousand people, whose members worked on the land during the day and fought at night. Moreover, there were approx. 100 thousand active supporters of the Viet Cong, who carried out important reconnaissance missions and organized the supply of military units with food and weapons. Among the population of South Vietnam as a whole there was an increase in sentiment in favor of ending the war, but there was also growing dissatisfaction with the corruption of the regime, its inability to provide security and a basic set of services.

On August 2, 1964, the USS Maddox, which was patrolling the Gulf of Tonkin, approached the coast of North Vietnam and was allegedly attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. Two days later, under unclear circumstances, another attack was carried out. As a response, President L. Johnson ordered the American air force to strike at the naval installations of North Vietnam. Johnson used these attacks as a pretext to get Congress to pass a resolution in support of his actions, which later served as a mandate for undeclared war.

Military advisers advocated bombardment of North Vietnamese territory even before the presidential elections. In the fall of 1964, the US Embassy in Saigon reported an increase in the infiltration of significant groups of North Vietnamese into South Vietnamese territory. In February 1965, following a Viet Cong attack on the US air base at Pleiku, Johnson ordered US aircraft to begin bombarding barracks and troop concentrations in North Vietnam, which were believed to be used as bases for strikes against South Vietnam. Initially, the bombing was intended to stop the penetration of North Vietnamese forces into South Vietnam, to force North Vietnam to refuse assistance to the rebels, and also to boost the morale of the South Vietnamese. Over time, two more reasons appeared - to force Hanoi to sit down at the negotiating table and use the bombing as a trump card in concluding an agreement.

By March 1965, American bombing of North Vietnam had become a regular occurrence. In early 1965, the US began to commit its troops in South Vietnam to combat operations, indicating that their status as military advisers had already outlived itself. In February, at the initial stage of the escalation of hostilities, there were about approx. US troops in South Vietnam. By the end of 1965, that figure had risen to about 175,000, not counting approximately US Navy personnel on US ships cruising off the coast of South Vietnam. However, only approx. 60% of this contingent was actually combat units, the rest was auxiliaries and support troops.

Military air operations in South Vietnam also intensified. Helicopters were widely used to increase the mobility of South Vietnamese and American troops in rough terrain. New types of weapons and combat methods were developed. For example, defoliants were sprayed, "liquid" mines were used, penetrating under the surface of the earth and retaining the ability to explode for several days, as well as infrared detectors that made it possible to detect the enemy under the dense canopy of the forest.

Air operations against the guerrillas changed the nature of the war; now the peasants were forced to leave their houses and fields, destroyed by intense bombing and napalm. By the end of 1965, 700,000 inhabitants had left rural areas of South Vietnam and became refugees. Another new element was the involvement of other countries in the war. In addition to the United States, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand, and later the Philippines and Thailand came to the aid of the South Vietnamese government.

A significant increase in the number of personnel and equipment in the armed forces of South Vietnam, the United States and its allies in 1965 made it possible to expand the zone controlled by them, especially in the Saigon region and in Central Vietnam. However, the Viet Cong firmly held many rural areas in its sphere of influence. Beginning in 1965, the intensity of American bombing of North Vietnam gradually increased.

In the summer of 1965, the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese came into direct contact with the South Vietnamese and American troops and fought serious battles. To prevent the enemy from penetrating along the Ho Chi Minh trail, which was a system of mountain trails in the border areas of South Vietnam, the US government allowed its troops to pursue the enemy into Cambodia and intensified the bombardment of the eastern regions of Laos. By the end of 1965, the governments of the opposing sides made a series of fruitless attempts to find a way out of the situation at the negotiating table.

In early 1966, it was decided to switch the main forces of the South Vietnamese army to peacekeeping operations in order to ensure the security of densely populated rural areas, such as the Mekong Delta. Meanwhile, the U.S. Army launched a gigantic, if never achieved, sweeping operation to destroy the enemy's manpower. The main hostilities in 1966 took place in the central coastal provinces, the central mountainous provinces of Kontum and Pleiku, bordering Laos and Cambodia, and also in the area south of the demilitarized zone.

The United States began bombing supply bases and gas depots in North Vietnam, as well as targets in the demilitarized zone. The first bombardment of Hanoi, the capital of North Vietnam, and the port city of Haiphong was carried out on June 29. Despite this, the number of North Korean troops infiltrating South Vietnam steadily increased. Soviet supplies to North Vietnam were carried out through the port of Hai Phong, from the bombing and mining of which the United States refrained, fearing the consequences of the destruction of Soviet ships.

In 1966, the Viet Cong failed to launch a major offensive, which gave high hopes to the US command. The strengthening of the allied forces allowed the American General W. Westmoreland to launch a massive offensive against the rebel strongholds in the first months of 1967. One of the tasks assigned was the destruction of villages controlled by the Viet Cong. Residents of suspicious villages were evicted from their houses, which were then burned or bulldozed, and the peasants were relocated to other areas.

The heaviest fighting in the second half of 1967 took place in five provinces adjoining the demilitarized zone from the south. American infantry troops were sent here to support the American marines, which fought bloody battles with the North Vietnamese. In the rest of the country, the fighting was mainly limited to attacks by partisans and counterattacks by government troops. The only exceptions were the large-scale offensives undertaken by the Viet Cong in October at Loc Ninh, in the area of ​​the Cambodian border, and in November at Dakto, on the Central Plateau.

In 1967 the American bombing of North Vietnam intensified again. The United States admitted that its aircraft flew combat sorties against North Vietnam from air bases in Thailand. American bombers attacked not only military installations, but also industrial enterprises, power plants, railways, bridges, river communications and oil storage facilities. At the end of 1967, US officials reported that they had lost 1,833 aircraft and 1,204 helicopters in the Vietnam War, of which 767 were shot down over North Vietnam.

North Vietnam never supported one side or the other in the Sino-Soviet conflict, as it needed the help of both countries. Beginning in 1965, the USSR supplied equipment and ammunition for air defense, while China sent auxiliary troops numbering from 30,000 to 50,000 to North Vietnam to assist in restoring transport communications and strengthening air defense. Throughout the 1960s, China insisted that North Vietnam continue the armed struggle until complete and final victory. The USSR, fearful of border conflicts, was apparently inclined to open peace negotiations, but due to rivalry with China for leadership of the communist bloc, did not put serious pressure on the North Vietnamese.

In early 1968, North Vietnam and the Viet Cong conducted a series of major operations against South Vietnamese cities. At this time ok. 20% of the 490,000 American contingent in South Vietnam and 35-40% of the combat units were deployed in the northern provinces. In January, North Vietnamese troops surrounded Khe Sanh, a small town in the demilitarized zone, where they pinned down a sizable US force for several months. While the Americans were at Khe Sanh, waiting for a big offensive there, the Viet Cong launched it elsewhere. On January 30, shortly after the allied ceasefire on the occasion of Tet, the Vietnamese New Year, North Vietnamese units attacked several cities, including Qui Nhơn, Nha Thanh, Da Nang, Kon Tum, and Pleiku. Small groups of Viet Cong attacked selected targets (like the American embassy in Saigon), others fortified their positions in settlements where they already enjoyed some support (for example, in Saigon's Cholon region). Under the blows of the attackers, the ancient imperial capital of Vietnam, Hue, fell, but during the counteroffensive, the city was actually destroyed by American aircraft. To fight the Viet Cong in the cities, government troops had to be brought in from rural areas. During street fighting, entire urban areas were destroyed, and by the end of February, there were 1.5 million refugees in the country, of whom they lost their homes after 30 January. Meanwhile, the NLF has regained control of many rural areas. Despite the fact that calls for a general uprising were unsuccessful, Operation Tet undermined the prestige of the American military for a long time and dealt a severe blow to the morale of the South Vietnamese. In June 1969, the rebels formed the Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam.

From 1965 to 1968, repeated attempts were made to start peace negotiations, but they turned out to be fruitless, as were the efforts of international mediators. UN Secretary-General U Thant, after meeting with representatives of North Vietnam in Rangoon (Burma) in March 1967, reported: “Hanoi understands the principle of reciprocity as follows: there is a civil war in South Vietnam, Hanoi supports one side, the United States the other. If the US stops its aid, then Hanoi is ready to do the same.” The United States, on the other hand, claimed that it was protecting South Vietnam from external aggression. Three major obstacles stood in the way of the peace talks: 1) Hanoi's demand that the US finally and unconditionally stop the bombing of North Vietnam; 2) the refusal of the United States to go for it without concessions from North Vietnam; 3) the unwillingness of the South Vietnamese government to enter into negotiations with the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam.

On March 31, 1968, US President Johnson gave in to demands to limit the scale of American participation in the war and announced a reduction in the bombing of North Vietnam (which, as it turned out later, did not affect the 200-mile strip north of the demilitarized zone) and called for an end to the war on the terms of the Geneva Accords . Although the US continued its ground and air fighting in South Vietnam and stepped up its bombing attacks on southern North Vietnam, the North Vietnamese and US governments began tentative peace talks in Paris in May. Immediately before the 1968 presidential election, Johnson ordered an end to American bombing of North Vietnam on November 1. The National Liberation Front of South Vietnam and the Saigon government were invited to take part in the talks in Paris.

In the late 1960s, the United States was swept by an unprecedented wave of public discontent over the undeclared war in Vietnam. Apparently, this was caused not only by the huge costs of the war and heavy losses (during 1961-1967 almost American servicemen were killed and wounded; the total losses from 1961 to 1972 were killed and more wounded), but also by the demonstration on television of the destruction, caused by US troops in Vietnam. Johnson's decision not to run for re-election, which was announced at the same time as the abandonment of the bombing of North Vietnam, was the result of a domestic protest movement against his policies in Vietnam.

R. Nixon, who replaced Johnson as president in January 1969, announced a transition to the "Vietnamization" of the war, which provided for the phased withdrawal of American ground forces from Vietnam, the use of the remaining military personnel mainly as advisers, instructors, as well as to provide technical assistance and air support for the South Vietnamese armed forces, which meant shifting the main burden of hostilities onto the shoulders of the South Vietnamese army. The direct participation of American troops in hostilities has ceased since August. The number of American troops in Vietnam has decreased from at the end of 1968 to about 1. However, more troops were deployed in Thailand and on the island of Guam, where the main air bases were located, as well as on US Navy ships, off the coast of Vietnam.

At the same time, the United States noticeably stepped up its bombing of Vietnam, first in the south and then in the north, and soon hostilities and bombing engulfed almost all of Indochina. The expansion of the scale of the air war led to an increase in the number of downed American aircraft (8500 by 1972). In 1970, the facts of the massacre perpetrated by American soldiers in 1968 in the village of Milay during the combing operation became public knowledge. These atrocities, as well as the military trials of the participants in the massacre, raised a new wave of discussion in society about the role of American troops in Vietnam and the position of the civilian population in a war without a clearly defined front line. In April 1970, US and South Vietnamese troops invaded Cambodia in order to destroy the bases of South Vietnamese partisans and to support the anti-communist Cambodian government of General Lon Nol, which had recently overthrown the neutral government of Norodom Sihanouk. By the end of June, the American soldiers involved in the operation were withdrawn from Cambodia, but the South Vietnamese troops remained in the country, and American aviation continued to support the troops who fought against Sihanouk's supporters and the Communists. By the end of 1971, war was raging throughout almost the entire territory of Cambodia. In 1970 and 1971, American aircraft continued to strike at the areas of Laos, which were under the control of the pro-communist Pathet Lao forces. In 1970, the bombing of the territory north of the demilitarized zone resumed under the guise of a "response" to the shelling of American reconnaissance aircraft. In February 1971, South Vietnamese troops, with massive support from American aircraft, attacked the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos. However, heavy anti-aircraft fire and fierce infantry attacks, reinforced by Soviet-made heavy tanks, forced the Saigon troops to retreat after a month and a half.

In 1968, during Operation Tet, the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese suffered heavy losses and from 1969 to the end of 1971 switched to limited guerrilla warfare tactics. However, in early April 1972 they launched a series of major offensives involving tanks and heavy artillery in several areas of South Vietnam. They achieved the most significant success in the north, where they literally swept away the South Vietnamese units that had fled in panic, expelling them from the province of Quang Tri, and for the first time since the beginning of the war captured one of the provincial centers - the city of Quang Tri. A serious threat also loomed over Kontum on the Central Plateau and Unlok, 113 km northwest of Saigon. In response to the enemy advance, Nixon ordered the resumption of full-scale aerial bombardments throughout North Vietnam using the latest, more precisely targeted bombs. On May 8, he gave the order to mine North Vietnamese ports and inland waterways. Such an unprecedented decision, it seemed, should have made it difficult for the emerging improvement in US relations with China and the USSR, but none of these countries went to confrontation. By the beginning of the summer, South Vietnamese troops launched a counteroffensive and gradually regained some of the territories previously lost. The decisive factor in the success of the offensive was the powerful bombing of American aircraft. At the end of October 1972, after secret talks in Paris between President Nixon's national security adviser H. Kissinger and North Vietnamese representative Le Duc Tho, a preliminary nine-point agreement was reached. However, the United States hesitated to sign it, and after the Saigon government raised objections on a number of points, they tried to change the content of the agreements already reached. In mid-December, negotiations broke down, and the United States launched the most intense bombing of North Vietnam of the entire war. American B-52 strategic bombers carried out "carpet" bombing of the areas of Hanoi and Haiphong, covering an area 0.8 km wide and 2.4 km long in one bombing.

In January 1973, negotiations resumed in Paris between Kissinger and Le Duc Tho, resulting in a settlement agreement, which was officially signed on January 27. The agreement was reminiscent of the October version and even the old Geneva Accords. It recognized the unity of Vietnam and at the same time confirmed that the 17th parallel remained a temporary demarcation line. The agreement provided for a ceasefire between North Vietnamese and Saigon militias in South Vietnam; the withdrawal of all American troops from South Vietnam with the simultaneous release of all American prisoners of war; US cessation of bombing and mining in the territory of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Joint military commissions and an international monitoring and control commission in Vietnam, which included representatives from Hungary, Poland, Canada and Indonesia, were established to oversee the implementation of the ceasefire agreement. The agreement allowed the supply of weapons to Vietnam only for replacement on a one-for-one basis, while the replacement of military contingents was prohibited. The agreement also provided for the withdrawal of all foreign troops from Laos and Cambodia, and it was assumed that both countries would conclude ceasefire agreements. In South Vietnam, new elections were supposed to be held, the organization of which was entrusted to the National Council, composed of representatives of the Saigon government, communists and neutral forces, but the date of the elections was not indicated. In addition, a special international conference was to be convened within thirty days, the task of which was to "guarantee peace in Indochina."

In April 1973, the last American military units left Vietnam, and in August the US Congress passed a law prohibiting any use of American military forces in Indochina. The political clauses of the ceasefire agreement were not implemented and the fighting never stopped. In 1973 and early 1974, the Saigon government managed to achieve significant successes, but at the end of 1974 the Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam struck back and in 1975, together with the North Vietnamese troops, launched a general offensive. In March, they occupied the city of Methuot, and the Saigon troops were forced to leave the entire territory of the Central Plateau. Their retreat soon turned into a rout, and by mid-April the Communists had captured two-thirds of the country. Hue, Da Nang, Quang Ngai, Qui Nhon and Nha Trang fell without resistance; Saigon was surrounded, and on April 30, 1975, the South Vietnamese troops laid down their arms. The Vietnam War is over. From 1961 to 1975, American servicemen were killed, people were injured. The Vietnamese lost at least Saigon soldiers, approximately one million soldiers of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam and the North Vietnamese army, as well as half a million civilians. Several million more people were injured, about ten million were left homeless.

"Second Indochinese War (1954-1975): causes, stages, results

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Second Indochina War (1954-1975): causes, stages,

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Second Indochina War

1.2. The parties to the war and their goals

Chapter II. The course of the war, its main stages

2.1. Early period of the war (1959 - 1964)

2.2. Full scale US intervention (1964-1973)

2.3. The final stage of the war (1973-1975)

Chapter III. Results of the Second Indochina War

3.1. General results of the war. Reasons for the defeat of the United States.

The role of the USSR in the victory of Vietnam

3.2. Geopolitical consequences of the war

3.3. The fate of Vietnam after the war. Post-War Development of Vietnam...................... 99 CONCLUSION

List of used literature and sources

INTRODUCTION

Indochinese wars - the name used in Western military history literature to refer to armed conflicts that officially took place in Indochina (Southeast Asia) since 1946.

Indochina wars are divided into: the first Indochina war (1946), the second Indochina war (1954-1975) and the third Indochina war (1975-1990).

The First Indochina War (French Vietnam War) began in 1946 (the beginning of the full-scale Vietnam War) and continued until the signing of the Geneva Accords in 1954, the First Indochina War was waged by France in support of its Indochinese colonies. In all cases, France, with the support of local allies (since 1950, with the support of the United States), fought against local communist rebels who fought for the independence of their countries with the active assistance of China and the Soviet Union, which was their "patron".

Second Indochina War, also known in Vietnam as the American Resistance or simply "American War", "Vietnam War"

began as a conflict between the United States, supported by the South Vietnamese government, and North Vietnamese, based on the communist Viet Cong (National Liberation Front) and the People's Army of Vietnam (NAV), known to the West as the Army of North Vietnam. This conflict began in the second half of the 1950s and ended in 1975.

the signing of the Paris Agreement on a US ceasefire in southern Vietnam. The United States supported France in the first Indochina War, with the support of the South Vietnamese government in opposition to the National Liberation Front and the allied communists of the NAV. With great ambition to annex and build its influence in Indochina, the US took over control of Vietnam from France after the Geneva Accords and turned South Vietnam into a vehicle to carry out its plans. North Vietnam at that time received military and financial support from China and the Soviet Union, members of the communist bloc such as North Korea, Bulgaria, etc. However, the essence of the war was the struggle of the local governments of South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia against the pro-communist forces supported by North Vietnam, therefore, the name "Second Indochinese War" combines three different wars - the Vietnam War (1954-1975), the civil war in Laos (1962-1975) and the civil war in Cambodia (1967-1975)1.

The Third Indochina War is the historical armed confrontation between various forces in Indochina, after the complete liberation of Vietnam at the end of the 20th century, which split into two blocs of the so-called "communist countries".

Accordingly, this may include the Cambodian-Vietnamese War, which began when Vietnam invaded Cambodia and overthrew the Khmer Rouge genocidal regime. The war lasted from May 1975 to December 1989; Sino-Vietnamese War (1979), it was short war in February-March 1979 between the People's Republic of China and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The Chinese invaded Vietnam as "punishment" for the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia after 1975, and left after a month, and this war was the first socialist war between China and Vietnam. After the end of the war, relations between China and Vietnam remained tense for about a decade, accompanied by the Sino-Vietnamese armed clashes (1979-1990) 2. The end of this third significant armed confrontation in Indochina Ban nghin cu lch s ng. Vnkinng (1945-1954). Nh xut bn S tht. HNi. 1978, v. 265 Armed clashes constantly took place on the border (June 1980, May 1981, April 1983, April 1984, June 1985 and December 1986 - January 1987), at times spilling over into a real border conflict (in 1984). The last armed clash between the countries took place in March 1988.

put in 1991 the collapse and disappearance from the political scene of the history of the USSR of the state-leader of one of the two warring "communist" blocs 3.

The relevance of the research work is largely related to the current geopolitical state of a new round of confrontation between the major powers, their attempts to expand their zone of influence, attract as many allies as possible, and sort things out among themselves “by hand”

third countries. The history of the second Indochinese war may be a warning to what limits such confrontation should not be taken. In addition, it is important to study the experience of the victory of a state that is weak in material and military-technical equipment over a powerful rival, if he is an obvious aggressor, another country is fighting for its independence. It is also important to know how the geopolitical situation in the region and the world has changed since the end of the war.

This topic has scientific, applied and practical significance.

The topic provides an opportunity to use the results of the study to solve practical problems, these are the tasks of reconciling the people of the North and South of Vietnam, removing hostility and misunderstanding after the war. Even today, this problem exists, causing instability in society, distrust of the state. This brings difficulties in the development of the economy, politics and culture of Vietnam. Only by studying the history of this war, we will find out what was right, what was wrong in the war, who was to blame, who was not, was this war needed, or is it just a senseless war?

In addition, the history of the second Indochinese war (1954-1975) is important for the Vietnamese. It meant the victory of Vietnam, and for us this victory is a matter of pride, because in world history Vietnam was the first country to win against such a powerful and influential country as Davidson F., the Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Izographus, 2002. - S. 15.

USA. It is a challenge for our generation to remember and be proud of what Vietnam has achieved.

The purpose of this research work is to clarify the causes of the war, its goals, characterize the course and analyze the historical and geopolitical consequences of the war.

Tasks that were set in this work:

1) Find out the causes, prerequisites for the war.

2) Describe the goals and objectives of the parties involved in the war.

3) Consider the course of the war, highlight its stages.

4) Assess the degree of influence of the Vietnamese conflict on the regional and international situation.

5) Analyze the reasons for the victory of Vietnam and the defeat of the United States and its allies.

6) Determine the role of the USSR in the victory of Vietnam.

7) Consider the consequences of the war for the participating countries and geopolitical changes.

The object is Vietnam in the period 1954-1975; the subject is the causes, moves and outcomes of the war.

The goals and objectives set in this research work determined the need to use a certain research methodology.

In the course of this work, the following methods were used:

1) Historical-genetic, which includes the identification of the prerequisites that caused the war, the consistent consideration of its course and outcome.

2) Comparative method, including for comparing the goals and forces of the warring parties, comparing their strategies and tactics, analyzing the geopolitical situation before and after the second Indochina war.

3) The systemic method was used for a comprehensive consideration of the war as a complex socio-political phenomenon.

4) The narrative method made it possible to describe the most important events of the war and their significance.

The state of study of the topic. The Vietnam conflict, how other members of the world community treated the events in Indochina, why the war was so long, how its course developed, what were its short-term and long-term results. These and many other questions have attracted and continue to attract the close attention of scientists and public figures in many countries. Despite the fact that the war in Vietnam ended relatively long ago (for the Vietnamese - recently) ended, however, recently it has raised many questions among historians, such as why did the war start? What did the world want from Vietnam? Why Vietnam? Why did Vietnam win?

On this topic, many scientific papers have been published that are devoted to the study of the causes, prerequisites for development and outcomes that affect the current geopolitical state of the participating countries, as well as throughout the world. The Second Indochina War is of great interest not only to Vietnamese scientists, but also to American and Russian historians.

Naturally, scientists from Vietnam actively studied the military processes in their country. Louis Van Looy (2000) "50 nm ngoi giao Viet Nam" ("50 Years of Viet Nam Diplomacy") analyzes Vietnam's military policy during the 35 years of the war from 1940 to 1975. Louis Van Looy is one of the key diplomats of Vietnam in the period 1954-1975, also one of the historical witnesses. Vietnamese historians Van Tien Dung, Nguyen Thi Binh, Nguyen He Tho and many others also worked on this topic. Nguyen Thi Binh was a diplomat, she was at the Paris conference in 1973 and a few years later she wrote a memoir of this decisive conference. In 2001, the Public Policy publishing house published her book, written with her colleagues, under the title "Memories of the Paris Conference".

Another participant and witness of the war, General and politician Vo Nguyen Giap, wrote about the Vietnamese conflicts. Vo Nguyen Giap is also known as the Minister of Interior of the Ho Chi Minh Government, Commander-in-Chief of the Viet Minh Forces, Commander-in-Chief of the People's Army of Vietnam, Minister of Defense and member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam.

Viet Cong Rebellion Guide for Underdeveloped Countries (2001), etc.

However, his most important works are the first and third books. In How We Won the War (1976), the author described the methods that were used in the Ho Chi Minh campaign. It was the 1975th company to end the Vietnam War.

Another work that received positive reviews from readers around the world is his third book, People's War, People's Army:

Viet Cong Rebellion Guide for Underdeveloped Countries, a kind of guide for "socialists" in the same conflicts.

This topic is also actively studied by American scientists: Stanley Karnow (Pulitzer Prize winner), David L. Anderson, Ilya V. Gaiduk, Frederick Downs Jr., Marilyn Young, Ryan Jenkins, Robert McNamara, Phillip B.

Davidson, George C. Herring and others. Among the English-language authors can be called the work of David L. Anderson "The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars)", in which he outlines the origin, course and historical legacy of the war. The book was published in 2005, deals with the French Colonial War (First Indochina War) and the Second Indochina War, however, he focused on the American War in Vietnam, i.e. the Second Indochina War against the US in 1954-1975. The author examines military, political, diplomatic, social and economic issues, both in Vietnam and in the United States. Its conciseness, readability, and authoritative review make this book ideal for beginners or advanced students of the Vietnamese conflicts of the 20th century.

This paper uses Stanley Karnow's "Vietnam: A History 1954-1975", published in 1997. Stanley Karnow was born in New York in 1925, served in US Army in China - Burma - India theater during World War II, he graduated from Harvard University. He began his journalistic career in Paris in 1950.

as a correspondent. He went to Asia in 1959 and received

Pulitzer Prize for History for his book In Our Image:

American Empire in the Philippines. His other books include Mao and China: From the Revolution. He served as chief correspondent for the series "Vietnam: A Television Story", for which he received six 4 Emmys.

"Vietnam: History 1954-1975" is a masterfully written history of the American intervention in Vietnam - by far one of the two best historical one-volumes. This book is a comprehensive and compelling look at the Vietnam War, from its root causes associated with the end of World War II to the final takeover of South Vietnam by the Communists in April 1975.

He analyzes the conflict from a political and military point of view. This book has three strands: first, the conflict between France and the Viet Minh in 1945, and how the French lost the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954; second, how the US government articulated its policy in Vietnam during the Kennedy administration, and how that policy ultimately failed; and third, how Richard Nixon, when he became president in 1969, changed America's policy in Vietnam and launched the "Vietnamization" strategy. In addition to these works, be sure to consider the "Emmy" - an American television award. The Emmy is considered the television equivalent of the Oscars (for film), the Grammy Awards (for music), and the Tony Awards (for theatre) // History of Emmy Statuette. Emmys.

work "Vietnam War: 1945 -1990" Marilyn Yang, this work is an excellent starting point for understanding Vietnam. This book is biased but also informative and good to read. She provided a complete portrait of that historical era. A portrait that always swayed to one side or the other, depending on who painted it. Many will criticize her attempt, calling him a leftist, a defeatist, or a liar. But the idea behind her work was that there were many lies over a 45-year period, with the vast majority produced by the US government. After reading this work, the reader can see how the same mistakes are being made again in the current wars in Southwest Asia and South Asia to promote the idea of ​​Western hegemony throughout the world.

The work of F.B. Davidson, Looking Back: The Tragedy and the Lessons of Vietnam, published in 2004. Unlike other works, Davidson provided a description of military history and of the first and second Indochina wars in Vietnam. Without focusing on the political aspects of the war, Davidson sharply discusses the military strategy that won and lost the war.

General Davidson's opinions are an inside view of the Vietnam War, at least from the American side. As he rightly points out, the war was a Vietnamese war, first against the French, then against the Americans. No one was in a better position to understand the American part of the 30 Years' War than General Davidson.

The main value of this story is seeing the story through the eyes of the central participant. Davidson researched the French part of the war, reviewed the struggle between the "two Vietnams" (North and South Vietnam) through American reports and documents obtained from North Vietnam.

In Russia, interest in the Vietnamese conflicts is very large and appeared immediately after the end of the second Indochina war in 1975. One of the representatives who studied the causes and preconditions of the war were Yu. A. Zhukov and V. V. Sharapov, a Soviet and Russian journalist, diplomat, who in 1972 published the publication “The People at War. Vietnamese Diaries”, in which the authors followed the developments in Indochina over a quarter of a century.

During the period of open American aggression in this region of the globe, they repeatedly visited the DRV, met with anti-aircraft gunners and pilots, with fighters of the people's militia, workers of Hanoi and Hongai, with the defenders of the Vinlin zone, which lies on the 17th parallel.

Other works on this topic include the works of the following scientists: A.

N. Gordienko, Yu. Lugovskoy, M. V. Nikolsky and A. Mineev.

At the moment, there is not enough information in the Russian literature about the consequences of the Vietnam War, what has changed in society and in Vietnamese politics. However, there are quite a few works on this topic about the United States, for example, the works of M. M. Ilyinsky on changing society and US policy, the views of US presidents on defeat and the lessons of war.

In addition, the domestic policy of the United States was considered in the book of 1972.

“The Vietnam War and the Internal Political Struggle in the USA” by the author V. A. Liven is a Soviet diplomat who was interested in the Vietnamese conflicts. The paper attempts to show the history of the United States' slow creep into the Vietnam War, as well as the balance of power in the United States after the 1964 presidential election, to trace the interest at a certain stage of a large group of monopolies, mainly those associated with military business, in the war in Southeast Asia, as well as the influence of the military-industrial complex on government foreign policy. A significant event of the period under review was the development of an anti-war movement against the Vietnam War. The book also examines the stages of this movement, the participation of representatives of various social strata in it, the struggle of American communists against the aggressive policy of the US ruling circles.

The role of the USSR in the second Indochinese war is considered in a work published in 1986. Authors M. P. Isaeva and A. S. Chernysheva "History of Soviet-Vietnamese relations (1917-1985)". In this book, the international support for the struggle of the people of Vietnam is considered, in addition, the authors analyzed the history of Soviet-Vietnamese relations, and emphasized that from year to year the friendship between the two countries became stronger and more multifaceted. This topic is also discussed in the Vietnamese diaries of Yuri Zhukov and Viktor Sharapov. The authors spoke about the courage and steadfastness of the Vietnamese people in rebuffing the American aggressors, about the militant proletarian solidarity of the Soviet country and other socialist countries with the fighting Vietnam. Thus, there is quite enough literature for writing a WRC.

The thesis consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. The first chapter discusses the prerequisites and causes of the second Indochina War and the goals of the parties to the war. The second chapter analyzes the course of the war, its main stages. The third chapter of the research work is devoted to the results of the second Indochina War, the reasons for the defeat of the United States, the role of the USSR in the victory of Vietnam, the geopolitical consequences of the war and the fate of Vietnam after the war.

Chapter I. Background and Causes of the Second Indochina War

–  –  –

From the second half of XIX century Vietnam was a colony of France. In September 1940, the Vichy5 French regime capitulated to Nazi Germany. In this regard, the French administration agreed with Japan that the Japanese would gain access to the strategic resources of Vietnam while maintaining the colonial administrative apparatus of France. Since 1940, Japan has colonized the territory of North Vietnam instead of France. In fact, North Vietnam played an important role in Japan's military strategy of dominating all of Southeast Asia. In anticipation of a German victory in Europe, Japan temporarily supported the French defense system in Indochina 6.

In 1941, Nguyen Ai Quoc returned from China, changing his name to Ho Chi Minh.

On May 19, 1941, he established the League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Minh) 7 with the aim of uniting all sections of society, all revolutionary parties, all patriotic organizations in society, in order to drive out Japan and France together, to make Vietnam completely independent and create a country Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The League became allied with the Communist Party of Indochina, which had strong influence among the urban working class, while the Viet Minh became active in the countryside.

The Vichy regime is a collaborationist regime in southern France that emerged after the defeat of France at the beginning of World War II and the fall of Paris in 1940 // Rousseau A. "National Revolution" of the Vichy regime // French Yearbook 2003. M., 2003.S. 45.

The short Japanese presence in Vietnam left a heavy mark. From October 1944 to May 1945, a severe famine broke out in Vietnam, which claimed a huge number of lives.

Viet Minh is a military-political organization created by Ho Chi Minh to fight for the independence of Vietnam from France and Japan // Mkhitaryan S. A. From the history of the united national front of Vietnam // Questions of History, No. 9, 1954. P. 23.

In December 1944, Vo Nguyen Giap 8 created a brigade consisting of 34 people, which became known as the Liberation Propaganda Brigade, which became the basis of the armed patriotic forces of Vietnam in their struggle against the colonialists. They began military action against Japan, expanding the war zone. Shortly before Japan's official surrender in World War II, the August Revolution broke out in Vietnam and swept through the entire country. 9 There were numerous and widespread strikes in the North, especially in the province of Thai Binh. From August 12, 1945, units of the Viet Minh army constantly attacked the plantations of Japan in the provinces of Cao Bang, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen, Tuyen Quang, Yen Bai and others and supported the anti-Japanese uprisings of the people of these provinces 10. One of the goals of the August revolution was the desire to force the pro-Japanese puppet state ruler Emperor Bao Dai 11 transfer power to the DRV. On August 19, 1945, Viet Minh representatives met with the head of the Japanese administration in Vietnam. The Japanese side accepted all the conditions of the Viet Minh.

But after the surrender of Japan, France, with the consent of Emperor Bao Dai, began to actively interfere again in the affairs of the puppet State of Vietnam. The people of Saigon actively fought against France with the help of the Vietnamese National Unification Front. On August 22, 1945, the Việt Minh demanded that Bao Dai resign, which he did. Before he abdicated, he said, “It is better to be with the people of an independent country than to be Vo Nguyen Giap (Vietnamese: V Nguyn Gip; August 25, 1911 – October 4, 2013) was a Vietnamese general and politician.

He took part in the Indochina and Vietnam wars. He is also known as Minister of the Interior of the Ho Chi Minh Government, Commander-in-Chief of the Viet Minh Forces, Commander-in-Chief of the People's Army of Vietnam, Minister of Defense and member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam.

Truong Shin. August Revolution in Vietnam. M .: Publishing house of foreign literature, 1954, S. 76.

–  –  –

Bao Dai (October 22, 1913, Hue - July 30, 1997, Paris) - the 13th emperor of the Nguyen dynasty, the last emperor of Vietnam, the ruler of the pro-Japanese puppet state of the Vietnamese Empire and the pro-French puppet State of Vietnam // Kobelev E.V.

Bao Dai, the last emperor of Vietnam:

historical essay // Problems of the Far East. 2012. No. 2. S. 154-166; No. 3. S. 134-145.

king of a slave country." By the end of 1945, the Việt Minh had taken full control of all of Vietnam14.

Ho Chi Minh at that time was in a secret communist base in the forest in Tanchao and led all revolutionary actions.

After Bao Dai stepped down, Ho Chi Minh returned from Tanchao to Hanoi. Under his leadership, the Declaration of Independence was written. On September 2, 1945, the declaration of independence was announced by Ho Chi Minh at Ba Dinh Square in Hanoi. It was also announced the formation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and its independence from Japan and France. Power in the new state was in the hands of the communist leader Ho Chi Minh.

With the victory of the August Revolution in 1945, the Vietnamese people put an end to French colonial rule, which had lasted for nearly a century. At the same time, the existence of the autocratic monarchy, which had existed for almost a thousand years, also ended.

However, this did not mean that the problems for Vietnam were over. French troops continued to be present on its territory, who wanted to restore influence in the region. France's ambition was very big, so Vietnam had to once again confront such a strong country as France.

The history of the war with France consists of two stages: the first lasted from September 2, 1945 to December 19, 1946, when Ho Chi Minh called on all the people of Vietnam to rise up against France. The second stage began on December 19, 1946 and lasted until August 1, 1954. At this time, many key events in the history of the war with France took place. This period, from 1945 to 1954,

Qunh C, c Hng, Cc triu i Vit Nam, NXB Thanh nin, 1999, Vol. 386.

Bo Thanh Nin - C quan ngn lun ca Hi lin hip thanh nin Vit Nam, No. 5, Vol. 24.

Luu Van Loi, 50 Years of Vietnamese Diplomacy 1945-1995, Volume 1: 1945-1975 (Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, 2000), p.24.

as already noted, became known as the first Indochinese war or the French-Vietnamese war.

It should be noted that after the victory of the August Revolution in 1945,

The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) was in a critical situation 16. First, in September 1945, a 200,000-strong KMT expeditionary force arrived in Vietnam north of the 16th parallel with the nominal aim of supporting the Viet Minh, but in reality they wanted to overthrow new government, that is, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. And more than 200,000 British troops advanced south of the 16th parallel, also with the nominal goal of helping Vietnam, but in fact, the goal of Great Britain was to help France in the fight against the DRV. In addition, more than 60,000 Japanese soldiers were liberated by the Vietnamese accomplices of France, these troops came out on the side of France.

Secondly, economic and financial difficulties were an important problem. Agriculture was not developed, the economy as a whole was destroyed, since all the money went to the war18.

Thirdly, there were social and political difficulties.

The Vietnamese government at that time was young, so there was a lack of experience in organizing and managing the state. The armed forces were very weak. More than half of the Vietnamese population was not illiterate due to the corresponding policy of colonial France19.

True, at the end of February 1946, Kuomintang units began to withdraw from Indochina. British troops left Indochina at the end of March 1946.

The Kuomintang is a conservative political party in the Republic of China. // History of the Second World War 1939-1945 (in 12 volumes) / editorial board, ch. ed. Grechko. A. A. T. 11. - M .: Military Publishing House, 1980. - S. 392.

Luu Van Loi, 50 Years of Vietnamese Diplomacy 1945-1995, Volume 1: 1945-1975 (Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, 2000), p.38.

Bo Quoc Phong Vien Lich Su Quan Su Viet Nam, 50 Nam Quan Doi Nhan Dan Viet Nam (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Quan Doi Nhan Dan, 1995), P.25.

Howard R Simpson. in Bin Ph cuc i u lch s m nc M mun qun i. NXB Cng an nhn dn. HNi.

2004, Vol. 189. (bn dch ca Kim Oanh).

On March 6, 1946, France recognized the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as part of the Indochinese Federation and the French Union. On November 20, 1946, a Vietnamese boat was fired upon by French warships in the port of Hai Phong. The French commander sent a message to the Viet Minh leadership and demanded to clear the Viet Minh presence in Haiphong. Failing to comply with these conditions, on November 23, 1946, French warships began to massively shell the city, as a result of which more than six thousand inhabitants of Hai Phong were killed. On December 19, 1946, the French command demanded the disarmament of the Viet Minh forces in Hai Phong. Using a large advantage in armament, the Vietnamese communists in the large settlements of Vietnam were driven out by French troops.

In December 1946, the Viet Minh leadership decided to move on to a strategy of prolonged people's war, which was aimed at exhausting the forces of France22.

On December 19, 1946, French forces attacked Hanoi, fighting in the city continued until February 1947. The second stage of the war began. In January-February 1947, Vietnamese forces blocked Hue (a city in the center of Vietnam) for several weeks, launched several attacks, but were forced to retreat with losses.

By the end of March 1947, the French controlled the main cities, the roads connecting them with each other and the coastal territory of the country.

Vietbac became the main stronghold of the communists.

Gio trnh Lch s ng Cng sn Vit Nam-NXB Chnh tr Quc gia-H Ni 2008, Vol. 156.

–  –  –

Viet Bac is a region of North Vietnam that served as a base for Viet Minh support during the First Vietnam War (1946–1954). Viet Bac is also called the capital of northern Vietnam because this area was the location of the headquarters of the Communist Party of Vietnam in the period before the uprising against French rule in 1945, and also the location of the headquarters of the Viet Minh government during the resistance war against the French colonialists//Gio trnh Lch s ng Cng sn Vit Nam-NXB Chnh tr Quc gia-H Ni 2008, Vol. 184.

In 1948, France came to the conclusion that it was necessary to create a political alternative to the communist state. On May 27, 1948, the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam was established, headed by President Nguyen Van Xuan of Cochin China. On July 14, 1949, Cochin Hina, Annam 25 and Tonin26 united to form the State of Vietnam27. It gained international recognition in 1950, although its main strength was mainly in a small part in the south, while the Democratic Republic of Vietnam mostly dominated the rest Vietnamese territory. Former emperor Bao Dai was declared head of state. Ngo Dinh Diem was appointed prime minister in 1954 and, after ousting Bao Dai from power in 1955, became president of the Republic of Vietnam (or the State of Vietnam)28.

The military-political situation contributed to the development of a tendency to unite the revolutionary forces of Vietnam, Laos and Kampuchea. In January 1950

in the liberated regions of Laos, a preparatory committee was formed to convene the Congress of People's Representatives. On August 13-15, 1950, the congress decided to create the Neo Lao Itsala Front (Laos Liberation Front), which united all the progressive forces of the Lao people, elected the Neo Lao Itsala Central Committee, consisting of 15 members, headed by Prince Souphanouvong .

The creation of the Laos Liberation Front laid a solid foundation for uniting all the patriotic forces of the country. The Congress also formed a government of national resistance, approved the political program that determined the tasks of the struggle for the independence of Laos and the elimination of feudalism, the Autonomous Republic of Cochin China, a state entity that existed in the southern part of Vietnam in 1946-1948.

The Annam Protectorate is a French colonial possession that existed in Vietnam in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The Tonkin Protectorate is a French colonial possession that existed in northern Vietnam in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The state of Vietnam is a state that claimed power over the entire territory of Vietnam in 1949-1954 // Soviet military encyclopedia. ed. Ogarkov. N.V. Volume 5. M., Military Publishing House, 1978. S.544-545.

Archimedes L.A Pattiyu Why Vietnam, Nxb Nng, 2008, vol. 630 – 631.

for the development of the national economy and culture, the strengthening of the alliance with the peoples of Vietnam and Kampuchea.

In February 1951, the II Congress of the CPIK was held in Tuen Quang, which was attended by 158 delegates with a decisive vote and 53 delegates with an advisory vote, representing over 760 thousand party members who worked in the party organizations of Vietnam, Laos and Kampuchea. The congress discussed the situation in Indochina, outlined the main directions of political and economic development of Vietnam, approved the Manifesto, Program and Charter of the party, elected new governing bodies, decided on the transition of the party to a legal status and renaming it the Workers' Party of Vietnam (PTV). In March 1951, the United Front of the Peoples of Indochina was created against the French colonialists29.

From the beginning of 1954, the battle of Dien Bien Phu 30 began, which is considered the decisive battle of the first Indochinese war. The battle for Dien Bien Phu lasted 54 days, as a result, the French garrison capitulated (10,863 soldiers surrendered on the day of surrender). In May 1954, France capitulated to the Vietnam People's Army after two months of defeat. This happened despite US support.

In such a situation, in the spring of 1954, an international conference was held in Geneva with the participation of the foreign ministers of the USSR, China, Great Britain, the USA and France. Representatives of the PRC, the DRV, Cambodia, Laos, and South Vietnam also took part in the preparation of the agreements. The conference dealt with Korean and Indochinese issues. Discussion Bo Qun i Nhn dn cui tun, V Nguyn Gip vi nhng ngy u chng thc dn Php min Nam, 23/08/2007.

The Battle of Dien Bien Phu is a battle between the French army and the forces of the United National Front of Lien Viet, which took place in March-May 1954.// “Despite heavy U.S. aid, the base was overrun on May 7, 1954" The New Encyclopedia Britannica. 15th edition. micropedia. Vol.4. Chicago, 1994. P.84.

The Battle of Dien Bien Phu was of great historical significance. This was the first time that an army of Asian colonies defeated an army of a European superpower. This destroyed the will of France to colonize Indochina and forced that country to withdraw from Indochina // Thi im ca nhng s tht (trch hi k Navarre v in Bin Ph/ Herri Navarre. NXB: Cng an nhn dn, 1994.

i tng V Nguyn Gip, Tng tp hi k - in Bin Ph im hn lch s. T. 871, 872.

the problem of reunification of Korea ended in vain. The second half of the conference was devoted to the fate of Indochina after the end of the first Indochinese war (1946–1954)32.

This part of the conference was attended, on the one hand, by representatives of the national liberation forces and the Communists of Vietnam, and, on the other, by the French colonial government and its supporters. The meeting opened on May 7, the day the French military base at Dien Bien Phu fell. On July 21, 1954, the Geneva Accords were concluded, which ended the French colonial war in Indochina and determined the fate of the former French colonies in the region. The agreements, in particular those related to the fate of the DRV, provided for

Ceasefire;

Temporary division of Vietnam into two parts along the 17th parallel (where a demilitarized zone was created), with the regrouping of the Vietnam People's Army in the north and the forces of the French Union in the south;

The holding of free elections in July 1956 in both parts of the country in order to determine the future political regime and the reunification of the country;

Demilitarization and neutrality of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia;

A ban on the supply of weapons, ammunition and military materials to these countries;

Establishment of an International Monitoring Commission to oversee the implementation of agreements 34.

Francois Joyaux, Trung Quc v vic gii quyt cuc chin tranh ng Dng ln th I, Nh xut bn Thng tin l lun, nm 1981, vol. 299-306.

A demilitarized zone is a territory where, under an international treaty or otherwise (including

domestic) act eliminated military installations and other facilities, prohibited the maintenance armed forces, building fortifications, performing maneuvers, etc.

Qun s (QLVNCH) tp 4. NXb i Nam. Chng 3: Cc din tin trong vic hnh thnh qun i quc gia. trang 202.

Figure 1. Map of Vietnam after the 1954 Geneva Accords

In general, the Geneva Accords provided for the granting of independence to South Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos, the withdrawal of foreign troops from the territories of these states, and the prohibition of further interference in the internal affairs of these countries. The requirement of the inadmissibility of military intervention was also emphasized in Articles 17a and 18: “From the date of entry into force of this agreement, it is prohibited to import into Vietnam any reinforcements of all types of weapons, ammunition and other military materials, such as combat aircraft, warships, artillery pieces, rockets and weapons, armored vehicles. It is forbidden to establish new military bases throughout the territory of Vietnam”35.

Bo Quoc Phong Vien Lich Su Quan Su Viet Nam, 50 Nam Quan Doi Nhan Dan Viet Nam (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Quan Doi Nhan Dan, 1995), P.125.

In the negotiation process in Geneva, the DRV realized that this was a chance to achieve gains without bloodshed, and wished to establish a temporary military line along the 13th parallel of the demilitarized zone, which was deeper towards the South. However, this proposal was rejected by the French side due to the fact that although the region under the control of the DRV was large, but very few people lived there, and at that time the French army remained in complete control over densely populated cities, important roads and coastal plains. . According to them, the 19th parallel, North Dong Hoi, was more appropriate for the dividing line.

In connection with the uncompromising position of the delegation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, France proposed the 18th parallel due to the fact that it needed a trade route through Laos, i.e. Highway 9, the Việt Minh remained adamant. The conference was deadlocked for 18 days36.

The ko conference continued when China forced North Vietnam to propose the 16th parallel along with a commitment to general elections within the next 6 months. Again, France rejected this proposal and made its recommendation for the 18th parallel, but accepted the proposal for a General Election, albeit with "vague" conditions37.

Only before July 20, 1954, France and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam accepted a new proposal from the USSR that they chose the 17th parallel and fixed the time of the General Elections for 2 years. The next day, July 21, 1954, the Geneva Convention was signed. Accordingly, Vietnam was divided into two parts; the border ran along the 17th parallel and the Ben Hai River. The Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone was not far away. See Ibid., p.132.

L Mu Hn (ch bin), Trn B, Nguyn Vn Th, i cng Lch s Vit Nam - Tp 3.NXB Gio dc. HNi.

more than 5 kilometers from each part along the banks of Ben Hai, which has become a symbol of the division of Vietnam since August 14, 195438.

North Vietnam was not happy with this decision. However, under pressure from China's allies, Vietnam adopted the "17th Parallel" decision with a promise to hold a General Election after two years of unification. Then no one suspected that this was the beginning of a 20-year separation, accompanied by a brutal war 39. However, the reasons for unleashing the second Indochina War were not only this, but were much deeper.

After France left Vietnam, the Ho Chi Minh government quickly consolidated its hold on North Vietnam. And in South Vietnam, the French were replaced by the United States, which considered South Vietnam as the main link in the security system in the region. The American doctrine of "dominoes" assumed that if South Vietnam became communist, then all the neighboring states of Southeast Asia would fall under the control of the communists. Another huge and brutal war began in Vietnam after the Geneva Agreement - the Second Indochina War.

1.2. The parties to the war and their goals

Many countries participated in the Second Indochina War. On the part of the United States, six countries took part in the hostilities: South Korea, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand, the Khmer Republic, the Kingdom of Laos and

Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) 40 with support from three more countries:

Philippines, Spain, Republic of China. A DRV (North Vietnam) Chin tranh cch mng Vit Nam, 1945-1975: thng li v bi hc. ng cng sn Vit Nam. B chnh tr. Ban ch o tng kt chin tranh. Nh xut bn Chnh tr quc gia, 2000 - Indochinese War, 1946-1954, vol. 103-105.

The Pentagon Papers, Gravel Edition, Volume 1, Chapter 3, "The Geneva Conference, May-July, 1954" (Boston:

Beacon Press, 1971).

South Vietnam is a common name in the literature for successive states that existed in 1954-1976 (actually until 1975) in the part of modern Vietnam south of the 17th parallel (R.

Benhai). The capital of "South Vietnam" was the city of Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City).

supported by the NLF (Viet Cong)41, the People's Republic of China, the USSR, North Korea, Laos and then Czechoslovakia, Cuba, Bulgaria.

In 1964, the first South Korean military personnel arrived in Vietnam, and the first large combat units of South Korea arrived in the fall of 1965.

The South Korean government agreed to send troops on the condition that the United States would take over their logistics and maintenance, as well as provide modern weapons 42. In total, two divisions and one brigade were deployed to South Vietnam, which made up the largest foreign military contingent in the country after American - more than 300,000 personnel for the entire period of stay43. Only in the 1990s did South Korea become aware of the facts of massacres committed by soldiers of the national army in Vietnam. South Korea withdrew its troops from Vietnam in 1973, the last of the US allies44.

In 1964, the first Thai troops arrived in South Vietnam, a year later another 200 sailors were sent to Vietnam; in 1966 the number of the contingent increased by several people; in 1967, the King Cobra unit arrived in southern Vietnam; in 1969, a large Black Panther infantry unit and 45 aircraft technicians. The total number of Thai soldiers who took part in the Vietnam War is estimated at two brigades. The personnel of the Thai units were recruited on a voluntary basis, but the United States paid allowances "for overseas service"45.

The National Liberation Front of South Vietnam, also known as the Viet Cong (Vietnamese Vit cng), was a military-political organization in South Vietnam in 1960-1977, which was one of the belligerents in the Vietnam War.

Gio trnh Lch s ng Cng sn Vit Nam-Nh xut bn Chnh tr Quc gia-H Ni 2008 Vol. 184.

Developmental Dictatorship and the Park Chung-hee Era (Homa & Sekey, 2006). R. 248 Chin tranh cch mng Vit Nam, 1945-1975: thng li v bi hc. ng cng sn Vit Nam. B chnh tr. Ban ch o tng kt chin tranh. Nh xut bn Chnh tr quc gia, 2000 - Indochinese War, 1946-1954, Vol. 143.

The Philippines sent only civilian troops to Vietnam.

The Philippine contingent, in whose activities up to 2 thousand Filipino citizens took part in Vietnam at different times, operated mainly in the province of Tai Ning, was withdrawn from Vietnam in 1970. The cost of its maintenance amounted to 35 million dollars. As part of the military assistance program, the United States donated to the Philippine contingent two river patrol boats, army vehicles and engineering and construction equipment, as well as light small arms - pistols, M-16 assault rifles and M machine guns for self-defense of personnel "46.

The Philippine military contingent consisted mainly of support units involved in various programs to assist the South Vietnamese population and in the construction of various facilities.

Officially, Taiwan did not take part in the war, but a group of "psychological warfare" specialists (31 officers) was sent to Saigon. According to Marek Hagmeier, Taiwan Air Force C-130 military transport aircraft were involved in the delivery of military supplies to South Vietnam, and KC-135 tankers were involved in refueling American aircraft that carried out airstrikes on the territory of North Vietnam47.

The Belgian government refused to participate in the Vietnam War, but after persistent demands from the United States, it sent a batch of medicines to South Vietnam and donated one ambulance to the South Vietnamese army. US Senator Frank Church expressed extreme dissatisfaction with the amount of assistance from Belgium 48.

Hagmeier Marek. For the union - weapons. US Bilateral Allied Agreements 1950-1978. M., Military Publishing House, 1982. S.83-85, 111, 114-116.

Hagmeier Marek. For the union - weapons. US Bilateral Allied Agreements 1950-1978. M., Military Publishing House, 1982. P. 116.

Lugovskoy, Yu.

On the part of the DRV, the Soviet leadership at the beginning of 1965 decided to provide the Democratic Republic of Vietnam with large-scale military-technical assistance. According to Alexei Kosygin, chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers, aid to Vietnam during the war cost the Soviet Union 1.5 million rubles a day. The crews of anti-aircraft missile systems (SAM) took direct part in the hostilities. The first battle between anti-aircraft gunners of the USSR and American aircraft took place on July 24, 196549.

Until the end of the war, the USSR supplied North Vietnam with 95 air defense systems (anti-aircraft missile system) S-75 Dvina50 and more than 7.5 thousand missiles for them51. There are allegations that the Soviet Union was involved in the Vietnam War much deeper than is accepted think. In particular, Mark Sternberg, an American journalist and former Soviet officer of the Turkestan Military District, wrote about four USSR fighter air divisions that allegedly took part in battles with American aircraft 52. Here are the words of Ilya Shcherbakov, the Soviet ambassador to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam during the war 53: “Assistance in repelling air aggression was precisely the main task of the Soviet military experts in Vietnam. This, in essence, limited their participation in hostilities. Although the halo of secrecy surrounding them provided food for numerous myths. They talked about Russian guys wandering with Kalashnikovs through the Vietnamese jungle and terrifying Americans, about Soviet aces flying Soviet MIGs under Vietnamese names, but during fights with "phantoms" desperately scolding the most that neither Mineev A.. Ours in the Vietnam War // Echo of the Planet. - 1991. - No. 35. - S. 29.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, p. 121.

Voronov B. A. Notes of the Chief of Staff of the Group of Soviet Military Specialists in Vietnam. P.34.

Mark Sternberg. Soviet Landsknechts Abroad//Zerkalo Nedeli Newspaper No. 2, C. 35.

Mineev A.. Ours in the Vietnam War, S. 30.

there are Russian expressions. And I, for example, on vacation had to convince my friends and acquaintances that all this was anecdotes and stories”54.

The PRC took part in the Second Indochina War. China provided significant military and economic assistance to North Vietnam. Mao Zedong, favoring the emergence of another communist regime in the region of Southeast Asia, has helped the DRV since the 1950s. On the territory of the DRV, Chinese ground forces were stationed, which included several units and formations of anti-aircraft artillery, covering the Vietnamese sky. China did not have its own air defense system and depended on the USSR in terms of modern anti-aircraft missile weapons, which was also one of the reasons for the increase in Soviet-Chinese tension. China, like the US, was an ambitious country, but unlike the US, China supported Vietnam because of a common ideology. When China saw that the USSR was helping Vietnam a lot, China began to fear that the USSR would take China's place in Indochina.

The goals of the participants in the war were very complex and versatile. For the rulers of the United States and South Vietnam, this war represented a confrontation between two ideologies - communism and anti-communism.

The US wanted to stop the expansion of communism in Southeast Asia under the "domino theory" and paid a huge price for the war. The "Domino Theory" was a famous theory from the 1950s to the 1980s. She suggested that if one country in a region fell under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow them in a domino effect. Dung, Toan thang (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Su That, 1991), P, 114.

Nguyen Thi Binh va Tap the tac gia, Mat Tran Dan Toc Giai phong Chinh phu Cach mang lam thoi tai Hoi nghi Paris ve Viet Nam (Hoi uc) (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Chinh Tri Quoc Gia, 2001), V.67.

the world. Although he never directly used the term "domino theory", US President D. Eisenhower developed it and put it into practice.

Figure 2. Domino theory painting (by Chris Sibilla)

In the period 1965-1973. American troops directly participated in the battles. From the point of view of those who supported American policy, this war closed off South Vietnam and Southeast Asia from the communists.

There were two directions of analysis of the causes of the war, from the point of view of Americans and American scientists. Some believed in the state and supported the struggle of the American army against communism. Others believed that this was a war of a new colonial occupier, and South Vietnam was a puppet state that the US received from France. And the policy of "anti-communism", according to Jonahan Neale, was a pretext and served in favor of the capitalist group 56.

In the world situation of that period, the war between the United States and Vietnam was a “hot war” within the “cold war”, which was fiercely going on all over the world at that time. Despite the contradiction between the USSR and China, they supported Vietnam in the fight against the United States.

Thus, in the second Indochina war, in fact, two camps clashed - the socialist (communist) and the western (capitalist). The main reasons for the war were not the desire of the United States and its allies to allow the spread of communism in Asia, but, in essence, two Jonathan Neale, Howard Zinn. A People's History Of The Vietnam War (New Press People's History). The New Press;

Reprint edition (September 3, 2004). Р.73 - 336 rubles.

superpowers were fighting for zones of influence and an important geopolitical region, which was Indochina57.

–  –  –

To the US government after World War II, the US, on the one hand, spoke of supporting the principle of national self-determination, on the other hand, the US had close relations with its European allies, who declared sovereignty for their former colonies (France). Some NATO allies argued that the colony provided them with economic and military power, and without it, the Western alliance would fall apart 58.

Since 1943, Washington has provided assistance to the countries of Southeast Asia against Japanese troops. Ho Chi Minh remarked that the US wanted to play a bigger role in the Pacific, and he did everything possible to establish relations with the US by organizing the rescue of pilots who crashed during the Vietnam War with Japan, providing the US with information, propagating anti-Japanese slogans. In exchange, the US intelligence agency OSS (U.S. Office of Strategic Services) provided medical assistance, supplied weapons, communications, mentoring and trained small-scale Viet Minh troops59.

On February 28, 1946, Ho Chi Minh (then President of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) sent a letter to US President Harry Truman, calling for urgent US intervention to support the nascent independent Vietnam. But he did not receive a response from the US, because the US considered Ho Chi Minh to be a "puppet of the Communist International" 61 and ignored Decolonization of Asia and Africa, 1945-1960, Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State. Qi. S. 25.

Maurice Isserman, John Stewart Bowman (2003, 1992), Vietnam War, pp. 4-5.

Letter from Ho Chi Minh to President Harry S. Truman, 02/28/1946 (ARC Identifier: 305263); Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Office of Strategic Services. (06/13/1942 - 10/01/1945); Records of the Office of Strategic Services, 1919 - 1948; Record Group 226; National Archives.

Adibekov G. M., Shakhnazarova E. N., Shirinya K. K. Organizational structure of the Comintern. 1919-1943. - M.:

Russian Political Encyclopedia (ROSSPEN), 1997. -p.280 - ISBN 5-86004-112-8.

Vietnam's request. At the end of September 1946, the US withdrew all intelligence personnel in Vietnam and sent them home, and cut off contact with the Ho Chi Minh government.

In addition, since 1949, after the end of the Chinese Civil War and then the Korean War, pro-Soviet tendencies began to appear in many Arab countries, American politicians experienced fear and apprehension about the wave of communism in the Third World 63. The United States needed an alliance with France to strike a balance against Soviet power in post-World War II Europe. Guided by the "domino theory", the United States began to help the French in the war with the Viet Minh (Democratic Republic of Vietnam), which was considered to be associated with the Soviet Union and China. However, until 1950, the DRV was not recognized by the Soviet Union and China and did not receive any support from these two countries64.

The Cold War with the Soviet Union was the biggest problem in US foreign policy in the 1940s and 1950s. The Truman and Eisenhower governments were concerned that if the European powers lost their colonies, pro-Soviet communist sympathizers might gain power in the new states. This could lead to a change in the international balance of power in favor of the Soviet Union, as well as remove access to economic resources to US allies. Events such as the struggle for independence in Indonesia (1945-1950), the Vietnam War against France (1945-1954), and Iran (1951) worried the US that independent countries would support the Soviet Union, even if these new governments were not directly linked to the Soviet Union. Thus, the US used technical assistance, sometimes direct military intervention, in support of Archimedes L.A Patti. Why Vietnam, Nxb Nng, 2008, Vol. 622 – 623.

Th gii th ba sau tr thnh t ng ch cc nc khng thuc th gii phng Ty, cng khng thuc h thng x hi ch ngha trong Chin tranh Lnh. Nhng nc ny tham gia Phong tro khng lin kt thnh lp nm 1955 sau Hi ngh Bandung (Indonesia).

Thng tin c bn v cc nc, khu vc v quan h vi Vit Nam, B Ngoi giao Vit Nam, So 23, T.12.

pro-Western anti-communist forces in the newly independent states in the Third World 65.

Since the end of 1949, when the situation in the world became tense, the United States officially intervened in the military operations of the French war in Vietnam. In October 1949, the first US delegation and diplomats were sent to Southeast Asia, then to Saigon to study the situation. Washington then officially invited representatives of the State of Vietnam to the United States to discuss issues related to ending the expansion of the role of the Viet Minh in Indochina. The United States promised to help France in politics, the economy and the military.

From July 1950 to January 1, 1952, the United States provided significant assistance to France and the government of South Vietnam in their struggle against the DRV. However, France was concerned about the intention of the US to directly support the State of Vietnam. In 1952, France announced that it needed the US to bolster its military power, but did not need foreign troops in Indochina (i.e. US troops).

In 1953, D. Eisenhower became President of the United States and, after assessing the situation, outlined the “neo-Eisenhower” doctrine instead of the “Truman Doctrine”, and also adopted the strategy of “massive retaliation” as a complete military strategy instead of the strategy of “deterrence”66.

In 1942, the French government appointed General Nauvoo as Commander General of the French Expeditionary Army in Indochina, who presented a plan according to which, within 18 months, the French would "put an end to the war with honor."

David L. Anderson: The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars). Palgrave Macmillan (April 16, 2005), p.156.

David L. Anderson: The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars). Palgrave Macmillan (April 16, 2005), pp. 161-175.

To implement the Nava project, France in Indochina provided 12 additional infantry battalions brought from France and North Africa, and also requested increased military assistance from the United States. By January 1954, with only weapons and means of warfare, the United States provided significant assistance to the French in Indochina, supplying them with 360 aircraft, 1,400 tanks and armored vehicles, 390 ships and warships, 16,000 military technical types, 175,000 rifles and machine guns. After 1950, the US provided weapons for most of the French Expeditionary Forces in Vietnam67. In this regard, General Nava later wrote in his memoirs that "our status has changed to that of a mere mercenary for America"68.

In 1953, the US increased military aid to France, believing that the US was not yet ready for France in Vietnam. In order to convince the domestic American political elite and public opinion, the US approved a strategy of supporting states in Indochina to prevent communist expansion in Southeast Asia. The Washington government argued that the loss of Indochina would have negative consequences, that the US would lose the key to the rest of Southeast Asia and that Indochina would become the first domino after which other regions of the world could become communist.

According to Felix Greene, the US target was not only Vietnam and Indochina, but the whole of Southeast Asia. Since Southeast Asia is one of the richest areas in the world. That's the reason why the United States was increasingly concerned about the problem of Vietnam, "for America After the battle of Dien Bien Phu, the Vietnam People's Army received many weapons originating in the United States // Toperczer, Istvan. MiG-21 Units of the Vietnam War. Osprey 2001, no. 29. R.80-81.

Qun khu 8 ba mi nm khng chin (1945 - 1975), chng 4: u tranh chnh tr, gi gn lc lng khi ngha tng phn, tin ti ng Khi (20-7-1955 n cui nm 1959), ng u - B t lnh qun khu 9, Nxb Qun i Nhn dn, 1998, Vol. 322.

Davidson FB, The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Izographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. - P.211.

Vietnam is an area that must be captured by any means.

The situation for France by 1954 was getting worse, followed by a crushing defeat at Dien Bien Phu, and, finally, the signing of the Geneva Agreement in May 1954. French troops retreated from Vietnam, North Vietnam was completely liberated. In accordance with the agreement in Geneva, Vietnam was to be unified within two years, and general elections were planned. But these plans were not destined to come true.

The Geneva Accords meant for the US the loss of its position in Southeast Asia, and the US refused to sign it. While US officials were forced to admit that a breach of these agreements would be viewed with "serious concern and a threat to international peace and security," the United States' subsequent actions created such a threat. Eisenhower nullified even the modest commitments made in Geneva, declaring that "the United States did not participate in the adoption of the agreements and is not bound by them." And Senator John F. Kennedy said, “This (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) is our creation. We cannot refuse it.”71 As early as 1956, the International Commission to Monitor the Implementation of the Decisions of the Geneva Conference noted that the agreements were being violated by South Vietnam, which was receiving military assistance from the United States72.

From the first months after the Geneva Conference, the Eisenhower government set out to sabotage the political settlement of the Vietnam problem. It provided the South Vietnamese puppet regime generously Thng nht l nh cao thng li ca dn tc Vit Nam, Dng Trung Quc, Bo Lao ng cui tun, S 18 - Ch nht 05/05/2013, V.12.

L Xun Khoa. Vit Nam 1945-1995, Tp I. Bethesda, MD: Tin Rng, 2004. T. 444.

Davidson FB, The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Izographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. - S. 235.

help and support. The famous message of the American President Ngo Dinh Diem dated October 23, 1954 stated that the United States would assist Saigon in its struggle against "subversion and aggression."

In fact, Washington promised assistance in the civil war between the government of the North and the government of Saigon, to which he pushed the South Vietnamese puppets.

American officials later repeatedly referred to this message from Eisenhower, which, in their opinion, was "the main help"

South Vietnam. However, attempts to find a "legal basis" for interference in the internal affairs of an independent state did not change the aggressive essence of US policy in Southeast Asia73.

On September 8, 1954, at a conference on Southeast Asia, held at the initiative of the United States with the participation of the United States, Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Thailand, an agreement was signed that became the basis for the creation of the SEATO bloc. According to the text of the agreement, the three countries of Indochina, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, fell into the so-called "protected zone" of Southeast Asia.

In December 1954, the United States and France signed a document allowing American military advisers to participate in the training of the army of the State of Vietnam. America did gradually expand its influence in the south of Vietnam instead of France. In January 1955, the United States officially and directly provided military assistance to the State of Vietnam. US Foreign Secretary Dulles said: "Investment in South Vietnam is respectful.

We have no choice but Diem.”74

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking Back: The Tragedy and the Lessons of Vietnam, Ladomir Research and Publishing Center, Moscow, p.213.

Nguyn Khc Vin, Nam Vit Nam: t Mt trn dn tc gii phng min Nam Vit Nam n Chnh ph Cch mng Lm thi, H Ni, 1970, Vol. 110-139.

From January 1955, the United States, in violation of Articles 16 and 17a of the Geneva Accords, stepped up military assistance to the Saigon regime. From 1955 to 1960, American military supplies amounted to, according to official figures, $571.3 million for "defense measures."

Instigated by the US in August 1955, the ruler of South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem, publicly refused to hold a general election to unify Vietnam. In April 1956, France left South Vietnam and the US Military Advisory Group joined the training of the Saigon army.

In fact, no one supported Vietnam's desire for unification; they were all more comfortable with the status of a divided country. The major powers (including the USSR and the PRC) were interested in maintaining a divided Vietnam and continued to do so75.

In other words, the powers of the socialist bloc did not provide the DRV with the international support it had hoped for.

In such a situation, the DRV tried to restore trade relations between the two domains in order to contribute to the restoration of the normal life of the peoples. But the State of Vietnam refused even to discuss this proposal76.

After the signing of the Geneva Accords, there were three main military forces in South Vietnam: the Nationalist Party of Vietnam (including the sects of Cao Daiism, Hoahaoism); States of Vietnam and Viet Minh groups remaining in South Vietnam. France estimated in 1954 that 60-90% of the rural areas of South Vietnam were under Viet Minh control.

During this period, the Viet Minh military force remaining in South Vietnam was estimated by the US to have over 100,000 soldiers who were effectively underground. They worked among the population, social programs "Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954-1960". The Pentagon Papers. 1971. R. 242–314.

H S Thnh- Trn Th Nhung, B t lnh Min, Nh xut bn Tr, Thnh ph H Ch Minh, 1998, V.56.

Nguyn Khc Vin, Nam Vit Nam: t Mt trn dn tc gii phng min Nam Vit Nam n Chnh ph Cch mng Lm thi, H Ni, 1970, vol. 239-243.

government of Ngo Dinh Diem, for example, "land reform", etc., but they were always ready for armed activities, because they had caches of weapons. The Việt Minh never recognized the legitimacy of the regime of the State of Vietnam. The Vietnamese staged terrorist attacks against representatives of the administration of South Vietnam. From the end of 1955, officials of the Republic of Vietnam were killed for political reasons called "kill evil people and spies and detectives." Under these conditions, the government of the DRV decided to provide all possible assistance to the forces of the south, who fought against the administration of Saigon under the slogan "overthrow the domination of the USA and its accomplices" 79.

Since the efforts of political negotiations for the reunification of Vietnam did not receive any results, therefore, from that moment on, armed struggle became the main focus.

In order to develop and improve the national economy under socialism and prepare for the expected, inevitable war, in the north, the Communist Party of Vietnam reorganized its state system (including the armed forces) within the framework of the socialist model following the example of such countries as the USSR, China80.

A system of state centralized planning for the development of the economy was introduced. In November 1958, the Vietnamese Communist Party set itself a plan for economic and cultural development, the improvement of socialism (including agricultural cooperation,0 for the period from 1958 to

to 1960. 81 Trn Vn Giu, Min Nam gi vng thnh ng, tp 5, Nh xut bn Khoa hc x hi, H Ni 1978, Vol. 201.

Nguyn Khc Vin, Nam Vit Nam: t Mt trn dn tc gii phng min Nam Vit Nam n Chnh ph Cch mng Lm thi, H Ni, 1970, Vol. 320.

T hai chic my bay b cp, L Thnh Chn, 04/27/2007, Bo Ngi Lao ng in t, T.34.

Qun s (QLVNCH) tp 4. NXb i Nam. Chng 3: Cc din tin trong vic hnh thnh qun i quc gia. T. 202 In the south, the US government has provided great assistance to the Republic of Vietnam with reforms in the development of many areas, such as literacy, urbanization, land reform, rural development, infrastructure construction, industrial development, administrative reform, legal system building. The Republic of Vietnam has achieved some important successes: economic recovery and development of health systems, development in education, cultural development, people's lives improved. In land reform, Ngo Dinh Diem, who became president in 1955, eschewed what he considered land plunder in North Vietnam. He instructed local officials to pay for the surplus land rather than confiscate it. 82 The government then divided that land up to sell to landless farmers, who received interest-free loans to buy the land for up to 6 years.

However, the land reform proposed by Diem did not receive support from southern farmers. While the Việt Minh cut tax breaks for large landowners, eased debts, and confiscated land to distribute to the poor, Ngo Dinh Diem reintroduced the landowning class. By the end of the Ngo Dinh Diem reform, 2% of the landowners owned 45% of the fields, while only 73% of small farmers owned 15% of the fields, and about half of the peasants remained landless 84. As a result, 75% of citizens supported the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam, 20 % occupied neutrality, only 5% supported the regime of Ngo Dinh Diem. On South Vietnam's assessment of the regime, American professor Noam Chomsky said: "The government of South Vietnam became a hiding place for the Vietnamese who supported France and did not .T.67.

–  –  –

trong giai on mi, ngy 10-9-1960, Vn kin ng ton tp, tp 21, Nh xut bn Chnh tr quc gia, thng 10/2002, T.

Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954-1960, Boston, Beacon Press, 1971, pp. 56-79.

fought for the independence of their country. The government of South Vietnam has no basis and no stronghold among the people. It goes in the direction of the exploitation of the rural population and the lower strata of society, in fact it is a continuation of the colonialism of France. Even the Pentagon also noted: “If it were not for the support of the United States, Diem could not have consolidated power in South Vietnam during the period 1955-1956. South Vietnam is essentially a US invention.

With the help of the United States, the government of the Republic of Vietnam conducted an anti-communist campaign that did not take into account the psychological characteristics and interests of the population, as well as the historical circumstances in Vietnam at that time.

The harshest measures were applied to any protesters. Between 1955 and

By 1960, according to the Republic of Vietnam, 48,250 people were imprisoned, about 24,000 were wounded in skirmishes, 80,000 were shot or killed, and about 500,000 were sent to concentration camps. This changed the social model, reduced public confidence in Ngo Dinh Diem's ​​government, and pushed the Viet Minh soldiers to create a war zone in the forest.

President Ngo Dinh Diem's ​​religious policies also caused discontent, as he supported the Catholics, while most Vietnamese in the south retained the traditions of Buddhism. Therefore, religious contradictions subsequently also became one of the driving forces that prepared the coup of the armed forces of the Republic of Vietnam against President Ngo Dinh Diem in November 196388.

Robert S.Mc.Namara: Nhn li qu kh. Tn thm kch v nhng bi hc Vit Nam, Nh xut bn Chnh tr quc gia, H Ni, 1995, Vol. 43-44.

Tng thng Si Gn c Nguyn Vn Thiu v con ng chin bi, Bo Cng an Nhn dn, 30/04/2010. Trch Nguyn Vn Ngn, nguyn c vn c bit ca Tng thng Nguyn Vn Thiu.

Dupuis R. Ernest, Dupuis Trevor N. World history of wars (in 4 vols.). Book 4 (1925-1997). SPb., M., "Polygon - AST", 1998. P. 493.

In the army of the Republic of Vietnam, most of the officers graduated from the National Military School in Dalat 89 and held key positions in the military service, most of them came from the middle class, some studied abroad, adapted the Western way of life. Another reason why the Republic of Vietnam attracted a large number of young people to join the army is American support. It was this U.S. support that provided servicemen in the Republic of Vietnam Army with a stable material life, making them believe in a superpower-backed government. But the downside of this policy was that when the US cut aid, (for example, at the request of the opposition and the anti-war movement in US 90 itself), the soldiers lost faith in the regime of the Republic of Vietnam.

In early 1957, the Republic of Vietnam applied to join the United Nations (UN). The US and Western countries supported, but the Soviet Union and some other countries opposed and vetoed the application.

From 1954 to 1960, the United States provided $7 billion in aid to South Vietnam, including $1,500 million in military aid91. In 1955, the US spent $414 million to help rearm and train the Republic of Vietnam's military force, including 170,000 military personnel and 75,000 police forces. 80% of the Ngo Dinh Diem regime's military budget came from the United States. 800 trains and vehicles were also delivered.

Cecil B. Currey. Chin thng bng mi gi. Nh xut bn Th gii, T. 345.

The movement against the involvement of the United States in the Vietnam War began in the U.S. with demonstrations in 1964 and grew in strength in later years. The U.S. became polarized between those who advocated continued involvement in Vietnam and those who wanted peace. "Peaceful Antiwar Protests Held Here And in Other Cities Across the Nation," John Darnton, New York Times, May 14, 1972, p.30.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking Back: The Tragedy and the Lessons of Vietnam, Ladomir Research and Publishing Center, Moscow, p.245.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking Back: The Tragedy and the Lessons of Vietnam, Ladomir Research and Publishing Center, Moscow, pp. 247-284.

The United States began to build military bases, such as Bien Hoa, Tan Son Nhat, Son Cha, Vung Tau airports. There were several American military missions operating in South Vietnam. The Military Assistance Advisory Mission had 200 consultants and staff in 1954, by 1960 this had risen to almost 2,000, including 800 military advisers93.

During the period 1960-1965, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam publicly supported the communists in the South and began to infiltrate South Vietnam.

The Communists in South Vietnam created the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam and the National Liberation Army94. Meanwhile, the US helped the Republic of Vietnam pursue a "special war" strategy or "Staley-Taylor" plan. The plan, which was prepared by two economists - Eugene Staley (Stanford Research Institute - Stanford) and General Maxwell Taylor, was announced in May 1961. In accordance with the schedule, the plan was implemented within 4 years (1961-1965). Its content was reduced to "pacifying the south" for 18 months, providing the army of the Republic of Vietnam on the battlefield96. However, the National Liberation Army still dominated the battlefield. By the end of 1960, the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam controlled 600/1298 villages in the south, 904/3829 villages in the central coastal plains, and 320/5721 villages in Tainguyen, the central highlands97.

The USSR during this period, although it felt its strength, still could not provide assistance to northern Vietnam comparable to the US injections into South Vietnam. But since February 1965, when the USSR and the DRV signed an agreement, Nguyn Tin Hng. Khi ng minh tho chy. 2005. T. 160-165.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, P.329.

Davidson F. The Vietnam War (1946-1975), Vietnam at War: The History 1946-1975. - M.: Izographus, Eksmo, 2002. - S. 176.

Davidson F. The Vietnam War (1946-1975) - M .: Isographus, Eksmo, 2002. - S. 225.

H Khang, Tt Mu Thn 1968: Bc ngot ln ca cuc khng chin chng M cu nc, H Ni: Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, 2005, V.35.

the scale of Soviet assistance increased markedly This allowed.

modernize the Vietnam People's Army, equip it with new weapons, including heavy weapons, and create engineering troops to meet the requirements of modern warfare. The Vietnam People's Army regularly held major military exercises, practicing tactics against the US armed forces.

China, which competed in the leadership of socialism with the Soviet Union, also did not want its role to be less than that of an ideological opponent.

The PRC helped the Democratic Republic of Vietnam during this period even more than the Soviet Union.99 The PRC called on the Democratic Republic of Vietnam to fight for the liberation of the South without fear of the American army.

In the summer of 1962, China provided the DRV with enough guns to equip 200 battalions. China agreed to send volunteers to northern Vietnam if American troops crossed the 17th parallel. From 1956 to 1963, China moved to the north of weapons worth about 320 million yuan. 101 In December 1964, the Chinese Minister of Defense visited Hanoi and signed a treaty of friendship and military cooperation between China and Vietnam.

For its part, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam maintained good relations with China, and with the Soviet Union, in order to attract as much military assistance as possible. However, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam did not want to be strategically dependent on any of the allies. The DRV preferred to make its own decisions about when to strike, when to negotiate.

The Democratic Republic of Vietnam received weapons, support from the allies, but expected to fight on its own with its human resources.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking Back: The Tragedy and the Lessons of Vietnam, Ladomir Research and Publishing Center, Moscow, pp. 317-329.

Davidson FB, The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Izographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. - P.218.

U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, The Human Cost of Communism in Vietnam (1972), p.49.

Wiesner, Louis (1988), Victims and Survivors: Displaced Persons and Other War Victims in Viet-Nam, 1954–1975 Greenwood Press, pp. 318–319.

The United States, in turn, constantly increased military assistance to the Republic of Vietnam, which produced tangible results. Military operations between the government army of South Vietnam and the People's Liberation Army were conducted with varying degrees of success.

The latter, in addition, actively used terrorist methods aimed primarily at government officials; they killed both the corrupt (to gain popularity) and the honest (to intimidate the people and show the impotence of the Saigon regime). Also, his targets were representatives of the middle class - doctors, social workers, teachers. In 1960 alone, 1,400 government officials and 102 civilians were killed.

The US stepped up its intervention in the Vietnam War and in February 1965, the US Air Force bombarded North Vietnam. Under these conditions, the Vietnamese People's Army of the North began to advance towards South Vietnam along the Truong Son Highway (Ho Chi Minh Trail), 103 in order to strengthen the forces of the Liberation Army 104.

After almost two years of fighting in the Special War (Special War) 105, the Liberation Army forces have gained experience in dealing with the "transport helicopter" and "transport armored vehicle" tactics, the main tactics of the US and the Republic of Vietnam Army in the "Special War"106. The "transport helicopter" and "transport armored vehicle" tactics appear to be part of the Staley-Taylor plan.

The Ho Chi Minh trail (eng. The Ho Chi Minh trail, Vietnamese ng Trng Sn) is the name of a series of land and water transport routes with a total length of over 20 thousand km in Laos and Cambodia, during the Vietnam War used by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam for the transfer of military materials and troops to South Vietnam. It is one of the key factors that ensured the military victory of North Vietnam.

Corell, J. Ho Chi Minh Trail (US Air Force Magazine, November 2005), p.12.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, p. 276.

Zhukov Yu. A. and Sharapov V. V., The people at war. Vietnamese diaries. M., Politizdat, 1972., S. 213.

The “transport helicopter” and “transport armored vehicle”107 tactics are tactics in which helicopters and armored vehicles are used to quickly maneuver forces, surprise and destroy partisan detachments National Liberation Front of South Vietnam. From early 1961 until 1963, this strategy brought many victories, and resulted in damage to the guerrilla forces.

However, since 1963 this strategy has been abandoned. In 1963, there was a coup organized by a group of generals who were dissatisfied with the administration of President Ngo Dinh Diem. The US supported it. It was from this time that the government of the Republic of Vietnam fell into a serious leadership crisis with 14 successive coups over a year and a half. The situation stabilized when the National Leadership Committee, headed by two generals Nguyen Van Thieu and Nguyen Cao Kyi, took over the administration (in June 1965)108.

In March 1965, US Marines landed in Da Nang to fight directly on the southern front. Since that time, a new period began in the second Indochinese war.

In the early years, the armed struggle of the South Vietnamese underground was a systematic terror aimed primarily at government officials; they killed both the corrupt (to gain popularity) and the honest (to intimidate the people and show the impotence of the Saigon regime). Also, his targets were representatives of the middle class - doctors, social workers, teachers. In 1960 alone, 1,400 government officials and civilians were killed109.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, P. 199.

Downpour V. A., The Vietnam War and the internal political struggle in the USA, publishing house "Naukova Dumka", Kyiv, 1972, pp. 111-123.

Anthony James Joes. The War for South Viet Nam, 1954-1975. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, P. 49.

2.2. Full-scale US intervention (1964-1973) In 1964, the United States, seeing the weakness of both the army and the government of South Vietnam, adopted a new strategy, which was called the "Common War" (in South Vietnam) (1964-1969). ). The United States introduced a direct expedition to Vietnam. This is the most difficult phase of the Vietnam War. known as the Joint War. For the US, this was a difficult decision. On the one hand, the US Army was to intervene to destroy the armed forces of the Liberation Army; on the other hand, they had to contain the war within the framework of Vietnam, prevent it from spreading, and prevent direct intervention in the war by the countries of the socialist camp. The big allies of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the Soviet Union, China also sought to help the DRV fight the United States. They saw that this was a very good chance for the US to get stuck in Vietnam and suffer various losses here 111.

The Republic of Vietnam welcomed the landing of American troops, as it gave them hope of victory. However, the government of the Republic of Vietnam was henceforth always required to consult with the United States before making decisions.

According to the US government, the Republic of Vietnam was attacked by North Vietnam, which was contrary to the Geneva Agreement. Thus, the reason why the US government began its military presence in South Vietnam was to protect the Republic of Vietnam in accordance with the terms of the SEATO treaty that the US and the Republic of Vietnam signed.

The President of the United States had the right to provide military assistance to South Vietnam in accordance with the provisions of the US Constitution and in accordance with the SEATO treaty, which was approved by the US Senate. In addition, US Congress 10

Lch s Khng chin chng M cu nc. Tp 4. Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn. T. 48.

Zhukov Yu. A. and Sharapov V. V., The people at war. Vietnamese diaries. M., Politizdat, 1972., S.236.

In August 1964, he passed a resolution allowing US troops to operate in Vietnam and supported the actions of the US President in relation to Vietnam112.

In the Vietnam Action Plan, which was developed in 1965, US Undersecretary of Defense John McNaughton listed the US objectives in the war113:

70% - To avoid a shameful US defeat (for our reputation as a defender);

20% - To protect (South Vietnam) from China;

10% - So that the population of South Vietnam can have a better life.

Because of these political goals, US military intervention has steadily increased. First, the US said that if North Vietnam did not cut off supplies to the Liberation Army, they would bombard. But the government of the DRV, despite pressure from the United States, continued to supply South Vietnam. Secondly, in August 1964, the first incident occurred in the Gulf of Tonkin 114. On August 2, 1964, the US destroyer Maddox, while performing reconnaissance, collided with three North Vietnamese torpedo boats. This resulted in a naval battle in which more than 280 Maddox destroyers used 3-inch and 5-inch shells, and four F-8 Crusader fighters bombarded North Vietnamese destroyers. One American aircraft was damaged, three North Vietnamese naval torpedo boats were damaged, four Downpour V.A., The Vietnam War and the Internal Political Struggle in the USA, Naukova Dumka Publishing House, Kyiv, 1972, p. 265.

Davidson FB, The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Izographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. - S. 456-457.

The Tonkin Incident is the common name for two episodes that took place in the waters of the Gulf of Tonkin in August 1964, involving the US and North Vietnamese navies. The consequence of the incident was the adoption by the US Congress of the so-called Tonkin Resolution, which provided President Lyndon Johnson with legal grounds for the direct use of the country's armed forces in the Vietnam War.// Davidson F. Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Izographus, Eksmo, 2002. - S. 324.

North Vietnamese sailors were killed and six wounded, the American side had no casualties115.

On August 5, 1964, after a second similar incident in the Gulf of Tonkin, the US Navy bombarded several important seaports in northern Vietnam.

On August 7, 1964, 3 days after the second incident in the Gulf of Tonkin, the US Congress passed a resolution on Southeast Asia. It legitimized US activities in Vietnam, gave permission to US President Lyndon Johnson, without a formal declaration of war by Congress, to use traditional military forces in Southeast Asia. In particular, the resolution authorized the president to do everything necessary to help "any member of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty"116. This included the fate of the armed forces.

The incidents in the Gulf of Tonkin in August 1964 led the US Congress to delegate to the US government Lyndon Johnson the authority to conduct all operations of the war, if necessary without Congressional approval. Shortly thereafter, the US began bombing North Vietnam. To support the bombardment, the US established military bases and airports, and large numbers of Marines arrived in Vietnam to protect them. Thus, American troops gradually replaced the army of the Republic of Vietnam, and they became a significant and main force to maintain security in areas under their control 118.

With the escalation of hostilities, the situation for the North Vietnamese residents became more and more difficult and stressful, even the troops did not have enough

Qun i Nhn dn, 2005, Vol. 167.

Craig A. Lockard, "Meeting Yesterday Head-on: The Vietnam War in Vietnamese, American, and World History", Journal of World History, Vol. 5, no. 2, 1994, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 227–270.

Marshall, Kathryn. In the Combat Zone: An Oral History of American Women in Vietnam, 1966-1975 (1987), P.12.

H Khang, Tt Mu Thn 1968: Bc ngot ln ca cuc khng chin chng M cu nc, H Ni: Nh xut bn

Qun i Nhn dn, 2005, Vol.171.

food. People from the cities were evacuated to the countryside to avoid bombs, food was given out on coupons. Young women were to participate in production and military training 119.

Under such conditions, the state of North Vietnam sought to raise the morale of the people. All participated in the mass organizations of the workers of the Communist Party of Vietnam. These grassroots organizations played a role in maintaining morale and confidence.

The economic life of the inhabitants in the south was also very unstable, they suffered from shelling, bombing, spraying toxic chemicals that were sprayed to destroy the crops of US puppets.

The Vietnam People's Army Air Defense Forces (ADP) could not compete with the US Air Force (Air Force) and Navy (Navy) and had to make efforts to protect very important targets such as Hanoi, Haiphong, major cities, important traffic points 120. By 1965, the air defense forces in the north are equipped with modern weapons provided by the Soviet Union.

Shortly after American troops landed in South Vietnam, the military tide turned in favor of the United States and the Republic of Vietnam.

The South Vietnamese Liberation Army was repulsed and pursued by American planes. It was decided to leave large detachments in the countryside and in the mountains. In the delta, they simply left small detachments and organized a folk battle of partisans 121.

The American forces launched a "search-and-kill" campaign to hunt down and destroy units of the Liberation Army. This campaign often resulted in casualties among residents due to the fact that the Americans did not know who the ordinary

H Khang, Tt Mu Thn 1968: Bc ngot ln ca cuc khng chin chng M cu nc, H Ni: Nh xut bn

Qun i Nhn dn, 2005, Vol. 172.

Marshall, Kathryn. In the Combat Zone: An Oral History of American Women in Vietnam, 1966–1975 (1987), p.31.

McMahon, Robert J. Major Problems in the History of the Vietnam War: Documents and Essays (1995) textbook.

residents, and who is from the People's Liberation Army. The guerrilla forces of the Liberation Army also expanded their offensive not only for military purposes, but also to attack the organizational structure of the local administration of the Republic of Vietnam. They also used special forces that worked in major cities, where these special forces carried out attacks on US military personnel in public places, anti-Communist politicians of the Republic of Vietnam and US officials122.

In 1966 - 1967 hostilities between the two sides took place mainly in the southeast. The Department of American Combat Commanders launched three major campaigns to defeat the NLA bases: the Cedar Falls campaign, an attack on the Iron Triangle of Kuchi County, where the Liberation Army had set up a system of tunnels used as a staging area to infiltrate Saigon; the Attleborough Campaign - strike in the combat zones of Duong Minh Chau; "Junction City" campaign - a strike in the military zones where the headquarters of the Liberation Army of South Vietnam 123 was located.

The "Junction City" campaign became especially large, when the US mobilized up to 45,000 troops and hundreds of helicopters with the intention of covering the front's leading structure, destroying the main base of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam. Despite the fact that the United States mobilized huge forces, this did not work: the leadership structure, warehouses, bases of the liberation army remained safe.

After 3 years of directly fighting the US military, the casualties of the liberation army have increased a lot, if this situation continued, the liberation army could not win. In order to prevent this, in order to create a landmark for the war, the Politburo of the working

Hi k, honh Linh Mu - Tm s tng lu vong, H Ni: Nh xut bn Cng an Nhn dn, 2001, Vol.45.

Hi k, honh Linh Mu - Tm s tng lu vong, H Ni: Nh xut bn Cng an Nhn dn, 2001, vol. 59-65.

Vietnamese Party in Hanoi decided to launch the Tet Offensive in 1968. 124 On January 28, 1967, Vietnamese Foreign Minister Nguyen Duy Trinh stated the position and conditions for a dialogue between Vietnam and the USA: Democratic Republic of Vietnam, we can talk with the United States” 125.

On August 2, 1967, US President Johnson sent a letter to DRV President Ho Chi Minh stating: “We have tried over the past few years, in various forms and through a number of channels, to convey to you and your colleagues our desire for a peaceful settlement.

For some reason, these efforts did not achieve any results”126.

President Johnson promised to end the bombing in North Vietnam and stop the troop buildup in South Vietnam when North Vietnam stopped sending troops and military supplies to support the Liberation Army. However, both sides did not find a common language to reduce the intensity of the war. The US rejected all the conditions that North Vietnam asked (the US must stop bombing north of the 17th parallel) and continued to escalate the war, and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam also refused all the conditions that the US offered127.

Only after the Tet Offensive or New Year's Offensive in 1968, long planned by the Politburo of the Central Committee of the WPV, did the US accept new unilateral concessions and accept the conditions of North Vietnam. If 1967 was the year of decisions in Vietnam, then 1968 can be called the culminating year.

The New Year's Offensive was one of the largest military campaigns in Vietnam, which began on January 30, 1968, by the Viet Cong and the North Vietnam People's Army against the forces of the army of the Republic of Vietnam, Dictionary of the Vietnam War / Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, p. 191.

Nguyn c Phng, Chin tranh Vit Nam Ton Tp, Toronto, Ontario: Nh xut bn Lng Vn, 2001, Vol. 78.

H Khang, Tt Mu Thn 1968: Bc ngot ln ca cuc khng chin chng M cu nc, H Ni: Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, 2005, Vol. 76.

Davidson FB, The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Izographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. - S. 354.

United States and its allies. It was a surprise attack against military and civilian commands and control centers throughout South Vietnam. The name comes from the Tet holiday, the Vietnamese New Year.

The Communists launched a wave of attacks on January 30 against the I and II Corps of the tactical zones of South Vietnam. The next day, the offensive unfolded throughout the country, it was well coordinated. The efforts of more than 80,000 communist troops were supported by the striking populations of more than 100 cities and towns, including 36 out of 44 provincial capitals, five out of six autonomous cities, 72 out of 245 district cities129. The offensive was the largest military operation conducted by both sides up to that point in the war.

However, in addition to success, the mistakes of the liberation army in the combat plan were also revealed. When planning a major offensive, the liberation army underestimated the real situation. The plan was based on a low estimate of the enemy's ability and an overestimation of their ability, so the liberation army suffered heavy losses. When planning the strategy for the New Year offensive in 1968, the combat commanders of the liberation army did not determine what, in fact, was the political goal of the attack.

The main goal was a big blow in order to create a resonance with the world, to force the enemy to negotiate130.

The Liberation Army again made the mistake of not being flexible enough to change depending on the situation. Seeing that the target had not been achieved in the first attack, they launched a second strike in May, a third in August, when the plan was exposed and the enemy was ready to counterattack Dictionary of the Vietnam War/ Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, p. 342.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking Back: The Tragedy and the Lessons of Vietnam, Ladomir Research and Publishing Center, Moscow, p. 231.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking Back: The Tragedy and the Lessons of Vietnam, Ladomir Research and Publishing Center, Moscow, p. 234.

After the New Year offensive, the liberation army was driven out of the major cities. Military units suffered heavy casualties, and many underground political forces in urban areas were exposed and destroyed. The troops of the Liberation Army avoided fighting in the south and retreated into the war zone of the countryside, mountains, part went beyond the borders in Laos and Cambodia. Only by 1970 did the armed forces of the liberation army recover again. After the military situation became calmer, the military forces of the Republic of Vietnam had additional time to repair serious damage in 1968. True, during the campaign to pacify the village, which was carried out by the Americans, significant forces of rebels and guerrillas were destroyed131. This was the reason for the US and RV to believe that the Tet offensive had failed.

On the other hand, the Liberation Army had reason to believe that the 1968 New Year's Offensive was a strategic victory because they "crushed the will of the American invasion" and the US was forced to begin an early withdrawal from Vietnam.

The New Year's offensive caused not only damage to the warring parties, but also brought a lot of casualties among the population, for example, the massacre in Song My 133, executions in Saigon, the massacre in Hue 134 during the offensive.

This major offensive showed the United States that the introduction of troops increased tension in American society, the war took on a protracted character.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking Back: The Tragedy and the Lessons of Vietnam, Ladomir Research and Publishing Center, Moscow, pp. 235-237.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking Back: The Tragedy and the Lessons of Vietnam, Ladomir Research and Publishing Center, Moscow, p. 245.

The My Lai Massacre (Vietnamese: Thm st Sn M) is a war crime committed by American soldiers in the My Lai village community in Quang Ngai Province in South Vietnam, which gained worldwide notoriety in 1969 during the Vietnam War.// Trent Angers, The Forgotten Hero of My Lai: The Hugh Thompson Story. Acadian House Publishing, 1999. P. 219-220.

Hue Massacre - A 1968 massacre of the inhabitants of Hue City by members of the North Vietnamese Army and the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam during the Vietnam War.// James Willbanks. Tet - What Really Happened at Hue. // Vietnam Magazine, February 2011, P.11.

Politicians in the US Congress began to pressure the government to revise the military agreements, demanding the abolition of permission to give all rights to the government to wage war without approval, politicians urged the government to resolve the war through negotiations135.

American society expressed impatience and distrust of its army, I demand an end to the war and withdraw its troops, believing that this war is dirty 136. Even the leaders of the US government were also divided on what to do next. A leading adviser to the President and even President Johnson were bent over and decided to stop the increase in troops, to negotiate137.

On March 31, 1968, for the first time in the history of the war, the US government was forced to give in and begin evacuating troops. President Lyndon Johnson announced an end to the bombing of North Vietnam, a willingness to negotiate an end to the war without adding more troops, and declined to run for another term. The new president, Richard Nixon, won the election largely thanks to promises to end the war.

However, the problem for the US at the time was that this would not be a victorious war and how to leave without losing face.

The retreat of the American troops in the country was irreversible and therefore also meant that the strategy of the war was changing, it was entering a new stage when the government and the army of South Vietnam had to fight on their own without the US Expeditionary Forces. From a long-term strategy perspective, this was a major disadvantage for the Republic of Vietnam, despite Robert Strange McNamara, Looking Back: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam, Ladomir Research and Publishing Center, Moscow, p.255.

Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), p. 142.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking Back: The Tragedy and the Lessons of Vietnam, Ladomir Research and Publishing Center, Moscow, p. 256.

Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), P.143.

for modern equipment, their army could not be compared with the American expeditionary forces.

Period 1969-1972 was a period of "post-New Year's offensive" or "Vietnamization"140, when the United States gradually withdrew troops from Vietnam, but continued to provide military assistance to South Vietnam. The US helped the Republic of Vietnam to build an army to the American standard, leaving the weapons that the US had on military bases 141. The US kept the Republic of Vietnam as strong as possible through air power.

In the summer of 1969, in the Hawaiian Islands, US President Richard Nixon and President of the Republic of Vietnam Nguyen Van Thieu met to discuss the withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam. The US wanted to call this process "De-Americanization", but the Republic of Vietnam objected, unwilling to admit that this was an American war. In the end, both sides agreed to call this process "Vietnamization". Vietnamization was the policy of the Richard Nixon administration to pull back US involvement in the second Indochina War through a program to expand the equipment and training of South Vietnamese forces while at the same time steadily reducing the number of US combat troops.

The situation in the south of Vietnam was relatively quiet in 1969-1971, the liberation army actively stockpiled food and weapons at bases in Laos, Cambodia and mountainous areas where the troops of the Republic of Vietnam and the United States did not reach. The Liberation Army used the border regions of Laos and Cambodia as a no man's land and springboard to attack the forces of Ngun gc, nguyn nhn v bi hc trong chin tranh Vit Nam, Bin bn Quc hi M, ti liu lu tr ti Ban tng kt chin lc - B Quc phng, 1973, Vol. 34.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, p. 321.

Marilyn Young, Vietnam Wars: 1945-1990, Harper Perennial, September 25,1991, p.233-235.

–  –  –

Nam, t.5, vols. 12-14.

USA - Republic of Vietnam 143. In order to weaken the forces of the NLA, the "Cambodia Campaign" was launched to end this situation.

Cambodian Campaign. The goal of the campaign was to destroy the military personnel of the People's Army of Vietnam (NAV) and the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF) or the Viet Cong, who ended up in the eastern border regions of Cambodia. A change in the Cambodian government brought the opportunity to destroy the base areas in 1970 when Prince Norodom Sihanouk was deposed and replaced by pro-American general Lon Nol.

The Sihanouk government, the DRV and China signed agreements that allowed the presence of military bases of the DRV on the Cambodia-Vietnam border, while at the same time allowing Chinese support for Vietnam through Cambodian ports. And in response, Cambodia received compensation from China in that China bought Cambodian rice at high prices. Before such a situation, the DRV found itself supporting Sihanouk and the Khmer Rouge 145 against Lon Nol. At the same time, Lon Nol, Prime Minister of Cambodia, received support from the United States146.

In April 1970, about 40,000 soldiers and 31,000 Republic of Vietnam troops attacked a base at the South Vietnamese Central Bureau in Tai Ninh Province on the border with Cambodia, but the leaders of the South Vietnamese Central Bureau and most of the Liberation Army troops moved deep into Cambodian territory. Although the US claimed to have killed about 2,000 Liberation Army troops, it did not kill the leaders of the South Vietnamese Central Bureau. On June 30, 1970, President Nixon ordered the troops to pull out of this battle after intense anti-war student protests at Gabriel Kolko: Gii phu mt cuc chin tranh, bin dch Nguyn Tn Cu, Nh xut bn. Qun i nhn dn, H Ni, 2004, Vol. 365.

Gi-dp A Am-t Li Phn quyt v VN-Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, T. 360.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, p. 112.

Gi-dp A Am-t Li Phn quyt v VN-Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, vol. 361-366.

USA. The Lon Nol government and the Republic of Vietnam could not cope with the liberation army due to the lack of US troops147.

The divisions of the liberation army, together with the Khmer Rouge, pushed back the Lon Nol government, gained control over the eastern and northeastern provinces of Cambodia, and expanded the base connecting with Laos. North Vietnam also provided arms, military vehicles and equipment to help the Khmer Rouge build new military bases.

The territory under the control of the Liberation Army and the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia became a large rear area for the Liberation Army.

The "Cambodia Campaign" was a big mistake in US 150's strategy. They didn't destroy the enemy, but instead created a chance for them to develop the military. The Liberation Army has already been able to purchase food, medicine on Cambodian territory and effectively equip its troops. Previously, the liberation army had to wait thousands of kilometers from northern Vietnam for this source of assistance.

Therefore, in February 1971, 21,000 troops of the armed forces of the Republic of Vietnam, with the support of 10,000 American troops and US Air Force 151, conducted Operation Lam Son 719, (in the village of Lam Son in North Vietnam - the birthplace of the Vietnamese national hero Le Loi). The number 719 included the year of the operation - 1971, as well as the direction (road) number - 9 152. The purpose of this operation was Gabriel Kolko: Gii phu mt cuc chin tranh, bin dch Nguyn Tn Cu, Nh xut bn. Qun i nhn dn, H Ni, 2004, Vol. 377.

Gabriel Kolko: Gii phu mt cuc chin tranh, bin dch Nguyn Tn Cu, Nh xut bn. Qun i nhn dn, H Ni, 2004, vol. 378-389.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, P. 211.

Yesterday Vietnam, Laos, Kampuchea. Today Grenada, Lebanon. Tomorrow… The crimes of American imperialism continue / comp. Pogorzhelsky D.M., Politizdat M., 1985. P.143.

Davidson F. The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Izographus, Eksmo, 2002. - S. 631.

Davidson F. B. Vietnam War (1946-1975) = Vietnam at War: The History 1946-1975. - M: Isographus, Eksmo, 2002. - S. 816.

was the destruction, the destruction of the system of reloading products, guns from the military base of Khe Sanh (Quang Tri province) to lower Laos153.

However, the US and the Republic lost in this operation, the number of helicopters destroyed or damaged during the operation shocked the specialists of the US Air Force and caused a reassessment of the basic airmobile doctrine 154. There were several reasons why the US and the Republic of Vietnam failed in this operation. Firstly, their military adversary was ready to repel the blow, since one of the most equipped bases of the PLA was based in Laos. Secondly, there was no uniform coordination of the armed forces of the United States and the Republic of Vietnam. After the army of the Republic of Vietnam failed to violate the bases of the liberation army in Laos and Cambodia, in early 1972, a new major offensive of the liberation forces began, called the Spring Offensive of 155.

It was a period when in Paris for several years, starting in 1968, negotiations were underway to resolve the conflict. Initially, only the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the United States participated; it then expanded into a quadripartite conference, adding the Republic of Vietnam and the Provisional Government of the Republic of South Vietnam. In fact, the main negotiators were the DRV and the United States. However, during 1968-1972, the conference did not produce any results156.

Melson, Charles (1991). U.S. Marines In Vietnam: The War That Would Not End, 1971-1973. History and Museums Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps. R. 32.

In the 101st Airborne Division, for example, 84 aircraft were destroyed and another 430 damaged 154.

The combined losses of US helicopters and the armed forces of the Republic of Vietnam amounted to 168 destroyed and 618 damaged helicopters. During Operation Lam Son 719 US helicopters flew over 160,000 sorties and 19 US Army aviators were killed, 59 were injured, and 11 went missing.

South Vietnamese helicopters flew an additional 5,500 missions. US Air Force tactical aircraft flew over 8,000 combat sorties during the invasion and released 20,000 tons of bombs and napalm. B-52 bombers launched another 1,358 sorties and dropped 32,000 tons of 154 ammunition.

Seven US aircraft were shot down over southern Laos, six from the Air Force and one from navy USA // Simon Dunstan. Armor of the Vietnam Wars. London, Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1985. P. 6.10.

Davidson FB, The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Izographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. - P.380.

Davidson FB, The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Izographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. - S. 382-388.

On the one hand, the goal of the DRV in this conference was to force the American troops to withdraw from Vietnam and to resign the government of the Republic of Vietnam. On the other hand, the United States believed that the DRV was only pretending to agree to coalition governments, but in fact intended to completely take control of all of Vietnam157. The US insisted that they would withdraw from Vietnam only when the Vietnamese People's Army simultaneously withdrew from South Vietnam, and Nguyen Van Thieu's government had the right to exist. However, the parties had to look for compromise solutions. The United States pushed public sentiments in the country towards this, and the DRV agreed to the existence of the government of Nguyen Van Thieu in South Vietnam 158. However, it was the South Vietnamese side that opposed the agreement, which refused to sign it. Those. Negotiations again reached an impasse159.

To put pressure on the DRV, the United States in Vietnam launched the military operation "Linebacker II", which was also called "Christmas bombing", since it practically coincided with the Christmas holidays on December 24-25.). The operation began on the evening of December 18, 1972 with a simultaneous attack on the main airfields based on the aviation of the North Vietnamese army.

The United States used a very extreme and cruel measure that is not accepted in general military standards:

using B-52s, bombarded and destroyed a number of residential areas in major cities, causing heavy casualties among the residents161. This operation severely disrupted infrastructure, transportation systems, and industry Stanley Karnow (Winner of the Pulitzer Prize), Vietnam: a History (2nd edition), Penguin Books; 2nd edition, 1997, R.

Stanley Karnow (Winner of the Pulitzer Prize), Vietnam: a History (2nd edition), Penguin Books; 2nd edition, 1997, P.444-446.

David L. Anderson: The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars). Palgrave Macmillan (April 16, 2005), p. 131.

Kolesnik N.N. On the participation of Soviet military specialists in the Vietnam War (Russian). Publishing house: "Exam", 2005, p.35.

George C. Herring, Cuc chin tranh di ngy nht ca nc M, Nh xut bn Chnh tr quc gia, H Ni, 1998, V.35 of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, but did not change its position in the agreements. On December 29, Operation Linebacker II was terminated. During it, 100,000 tons of bombs were dropped on Vietnam. The books then refer to this as "Operation Dien Bien Phu in the Air" as a way of expressing the Democratic Republic's air defense victory in this operation.

Simultaneously with the bombing of North Vietnam, President Nixon visited the Soviet Union and China. Both the Soviet Union and China, for their part, feared that the United States would be able to ally with one of them, so it would become an alliance on one side or the other, so they wanted the Vietnam problem to be finally resolved. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam criticized that the Soviet Union and the Chinese accepted the visit of the US President164.

On January 27, 1973, the Paris Agreement was signed and was considered a major victory for the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. On March 29, 1973, the last American troops left Vietnam, and all military intervention by the United States in the Vietnam issue ceased. From that moment on, only the Republic of Vietnam fought alone against the increasingly powerful Vietnamese Liberation Army.

Colonel Mikhail Malgin. Vietnam: the height of the war (Russian). Military space defense (2006). - The peak of the confrontation between the anti-aircraft missile forces of the DRV and the US Air Force fell on 1967-1968. Retrieved May 18, 2009.

Gilster, Herman L. The Air War in Southeast Asia: Case Studies of Selected Campaigns. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press, 1993, P.29.

David L. Anderson: The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars). Palgrave Macmillan (April 16, 2005), p.139.

zones. The two parties must create conditions for residents to live and travel freely between these two areas 166.

Second, the establishment of the Council of National Reconciliation and ethnic unification, ensuring freedom and democracy, holding elections to form the government of national reconciliation of South Vietnam and strive for unification167.

In addition to these conditions, the United States had to financially help Vietnam recover as compensation for the damage they had done during the war.

The release of the prisoners was envisaged.

It is clear that the Paris agreements satisfied North Vietnam, gave the United States the opportunity to withdraw from the war, but the Republic of Vietnam found itself in a disadvantageous position, its regime was called into question.

In order to appease the Republic of Vietnam, President Nixon made a promise to President Nguyen Van Thieu that if the Liberation Army went to war to destroy the Republic of Vietnam, the United States would respond accordingly. This promise later had no practical value 168.

Thus, the stage of large-scale US military participation in the second Indochina war was completed. He brought a lot of grief and destruction to the people of Vietnam. The United States did not gain anything in this war, but deservedly received the title of aggressor, despite the fact that they acted as an ally of one of the parties to the intranational conflict. Besides,

Reissue edition (February 17, 2007), P.191.

Frederick Downs Jr., The Killing Zone: My life in the Vietnam War (Reissue Edition), W. W. Norton & Company;

Reissue edition (February 17, 2007), pp. 120-125.

L Mu Hn (ch bin), Trn B, Nguyn Vn Th, i cng Lch s Vit Nam - Tp 3. Nh xut bn Gio dc.

HNi. T. 176-177.

it turned out that the powerful state was powerless before the desire of the people for independence.

–  –  –

From that time on, the general outcome of the war became clear. The withdrawal of the American Expeditionary Force significantly weakened South Vietnam's capabilities. True, the United States continued to provide him with military and other assistance, but on a truncated scale. Nixon even suggested in 1974-1975. 1 billion dollars to the Republic of Vietnam, but this decision was not confirmed by the US Congress, the amount of assistance dropped to 700 million 170. US military advisers remained in Vietnam, who helped the South Vietnamese troops 171.

2 years after the withdrawal of US troops, the Republic of Vietnam could not defend itself, their army was quickly defeated and surrendered on April 30, 1975. But during this time, many military events took place. The Saigon army undertook several military operations, often unsuccessful. At the same time, namely in 1974, the PRC attacked and completely occupied the Paracel Islands, where the reserve forces of the Republic of Vietnam were stationed. The United States and its 7th Fleet also did not help the Republic of Vietnam in the Paracel Islands problem, although it asked for help172.

In the period 1973-1975. aid to the DRV and the Vietnamese Liberation Army was noticeably reduced. The total number of tons of weapons and military equipment fell from about 171,166 tons per year during 1969-1972. up to about 16,415 tons per year in the period 1973-1975, but still the balance of power was still in favor of the liberation army. It was replenished with additional troops, SA-75M in Operation Lightbeker-2 (Russian) // Aerospace Defense: Journal. - 2015. - May (No. 05). -

–  –  –

Duncanson, Dennis J. Government and Revolution in Vietnam. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. Vol. 223.

Cuc ng khi k diu min Nam Vit Nam, 1959-1960, L Hng Lnh, Nh xut bn Nng, 2006, Vol.34.

coming from the north of the country. Ammunition and equipment were sufficient.

The morale of the troops was also high. Still, after all, a victory was won over the US army173.

At the same time, the army of the Republic of Vietnam was experiencing more and more difficulties, there were enough weapons, but funding was reduced, there was not enough money to pay officers and soldiers, fuel shortages began. But the biggest problem for the army of the Republic of Vietnam was the morale of the troops. After the Paris Agreement, the prospects for officers and soldiers were bleak, pessimistic sentiments spread, and the number of deviationists and deserters increased.

The Spring Offensive was the last major land campaign of the second Indochina War. It was carried out by the forces of the North Vietnamese army in March-April 1975. It consisted of three offensive operations: Tainguen, Hue-Danang and Ho Chi Minh 175.

As a result of the Tainguen operation, South Vietnam was practically cut in two. The northern provinces of South Vietnam were isolated, and the situation quickly acquired the features of a military disaster. President Thieu was initially determined to defend all the key cities in the area, but then decided to defend only Da Nang. Hundreds of thousands of refugees from all over the corps flocked to the city (by the end of the month there were up to 1.5 million), bringing chaos to city life and hindering the movement of government troops. By March 25, the VNA had taken Hue, the ancient capital of Vietnam, for the second time in the war. The units of the government army retreating to Da Nang were completely disorganized, so there was practically no one to defend the city. Hundreds drowned trying to swim to Qun s (QLVNCH) tp 4. NXb i Nam. Chng 3: Cc din tin trong vic hnh thnh qun i quc gia. T. 219.

Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), pp. 179-181.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, p. 374.

The final part of the Spring Offensive was called Operation Ho Chi Minh. Her plan provided for the defeat of the South Vietnamese troops on the distant approaches to Saigon, since the North Vietnamese leadership wanted to avoid the destruction of the city during protracted street battles, as happened during the Tet offensive of 177.

Operation Ho Chi Minh began on 26 April. By this time, Nguyen Van Thieu had already left the presidency and flew to Taiwan. On April 28, VNA units reached the outskirts of Saigon. The next day, the US launched Operation Gusty Wind, an airlift of its diplomatic personnel from Saigon. Television footage circulated around the world showing Vietnamese refugees desperately storming American helicopters; the helicopters themselves, after landing on US Navy ships in the South China Sea, collided overboard to make room for the other 178.

The Vietnam War is over. According to the official Vietnamese estimate, the entire 1975 Spring Offensive took 55 days.

Shortly after the Vietnamese People's Army captured the city and took over all of South Vietnam, Lieutenant General Tran Van Cha, commander of the Saigon administration, told the President of the Republic of Vietnam: "There are no winners among us, no losers, but we, the people of Vietnam, have defeated American imperialism." 179.

Frederick Downs Jr., The Killing Zone: My life in the Vietnam War (Reissue Edition), W. W. Norton & Company;

Reissue edition (February 17, 2007), P.251.

Kolesnik. N.N. On the participation of Soviet military specialists in the Vietnam War (Russian). Publishing house: "Exam", 2005, p.39.

Qun khu 8 ba mi nm khng chin (1945 - 1975), chng 4: u tranh chnh tr, gi gn lc lng khi ngha tng phn, tin ti ng Khi (20-7-1955 n cui nm 1959), trang 319- 321, ng u - B t lnh qun khu 9, Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, 1998, V.98.

Ilya V. Gaiduk. Lin Bang X Vit v chin tranh Vit Nam. Nh xut bn Cng An Nhn dn 1998. Chng XI.T.17 Tom Polgar, senior official at the US Embassy in Vietnam, one of the last American evacuees, wrote down his remarks on the same day180: “This war (the Vietnam War) is very long and difficult in which we lost. This unique failure in US history did not stop US global hegemony. But those who do not learn from history will surely repeat the mistakes in the future”181 Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), P.179-180.

Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), P.181.

Chapter III Results of the Second Indochina War

3.1. General results of the war. Reasons for the defeat of the United States. The role of the USSR in the victory of Vietnam The most immediate result of the second Indochinese war was a startling death toll. The war claimed an estimated 2 million Vietnamese civilians, 1.1 million North Vietnamese troops, 200,000 South Vietnamese troops, and 58,000 US troops. not only destroyed Vietnam's natural environment, but also caused widespread health problems that have persisted for decades. America has released 45,260 tons (75 million liters) of toxic chemicals into South Vietnam. Tens of thousands of victims of a chemical attack, half of Vietnam's rainforests are being destroyed. After the war, Vietnam is one of the most polluted countries Vietnam has become the most bombed country in the history of the world185. The number of bombs dropped in Vietnam was 7.85 million tons, almost 3 times the total number of bombs used during World War II. Millions of tons of unexploded landmines remain underground, as more than 42,000 people died, 62,000 were injured between 1975 and 2014, and 6.6 million hectares of land were contaminated. Infrastructure in both regions of Vietnam is badly damaged. The Vietnamese government spent about 100 million a year to clean up the consequences of mines and bombs186. There were not only economic, environmental problems, but also psychological ones: mass rape Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), P.183.

Snakin VV Ecology and nature management in Russia: an encyclopedic dictionary / Valery Viktorovich Snakin - Academia, 2008 - P.785.

Davidson FB, The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M .: Izographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. - P. 799.

Robert K. Brigham, Battlefield Vietnam: A Brief History, 6-9-2007, P.43.

Davidson FB, The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Izographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. - S. 810.

women for which no one has been punished. After decades of conflict, Vietnam has the world's fourth largest army, but one of the world's poorest countries.

In July 1976, Vietnam was officially reunified and became the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), with Hanoi as its capital. Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City.

However, Vietnam's military problems were not over. In neighboring Kampuchea (as Cambodia was now known), communist dictator Pol Pot and his Khmer Rouge forces launched an era of terror in hopes of creating a pre-industrial utopia, killing an estimated 2 million people in the so-called "killing fields".

In 1978, the SRV invaded Kampuchea to stop the Khmer Rouge.

Although the Vietnamese invasion of Kampuchea was intended to end the killing fields, China became concerned about the expansion of Vietnamese influence in the region and began a border war with Vietnam.

The Vietnam War or the Second Indochina War became the largest and most important event in world politics in the second half of the 20th century. This major conflict was resolved after decades of internal political strife in Vietnam, ended more than a century of direct colonial French and American involvement in that country, and left the Socialist Republic of Vietnam independent and unified. These were important historical milestones for Vietnam and for the entire territory of Southeast Asia.

Most importantly for global security, however, at the time it had an impact on the self-image and strategic thinking of the United States. In 1945 Qun khu 8 ba mi nm khng chin (1945 - 1975), chng 4: u tranh chnh tr, gi gn lc lng khi ngha tng phn, tin ti ng Khi (20-7-1955 n cui nm 1959), trang 319-321, ng u - B t lnh qun khu 9, Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, 1998, vol. 79-78.

Nguyn Vn Tun. Agent orange and the war in Vietnam (in Vietnamese), Garvan Institute of Medical Research and University of New South Wales, Australia, P. 54.

The year the Franco-Viet Minh War began, American leaders were confident in the superiority of American military power and democratic ideals after the victory of the US allies over the German and Japanese dictatorships in World War II.

There was fear of the ambitions and potential threat of the Soviet Union, but there was also a sense that the policy of containment and its combination of economic, military, and political containment would keep America and the world safe. In 1975, when the Vietnam War ended, that sentiment in America and the Western world gave way to frustration, internal division, and moral uncertainty. Despite being willing to sacrifice thousands of lives and billions of dollars, the United States failed to achieve its goal of deterrence and ensure the survival of a separate and enduring ally in South Vietnam. The US mobilized 6.6 million troops (15% of young people across the US) for this war. high point in 1968 to 1969 there were 628,000 American soldiers. Along with the army, the US Air Force mobilized 2,300 aircraft, of which 46% were B-52 "Flying Fortress" with over 200 units; 42% of the Navy's warships, including aircraft carriers, cruisers, 3,000 tanks and armored vehicles; 2000 heavy artillery from 120 to 175 mm 191.

In addition, the United States invested in building and maintaining the army of the Republic of Vietnam to equip 1,800 aircraft, 2,000 armored tanks, 1,500 guns, 2 million guns of all kinds, 50,000 military motor vehicles, hundreds of ships and boats. Around 11,000 Davidson FB, Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Izographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. - S. 790,791.

Qun khu 8 ba mi nm khng chin (1945 - 1975), chng 4: u tranh chnh tr, gi gn lc lng khi ngha tng phn, tin ti ng Khi (20-7-1955 n cui nm 1959), trang 326- 327, ng u - B t lnh qun khu 9, Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, 1998, Vol. 76.

Robert K. Brigham, Battlefield Vietnam: A Brief History, 6-9-2007, P.47,48.

US aircraft were shot down or destroyed in Vietnam, 877 and other aircraft were captured by the Vietnam People's Army192.

After the defeat in Vietnam, President Richard Nixon acknowledged:

“Never in American history have so many resources been put to good use as in the Vietnam War. War against a nuclear superpower with a $500 billion GDP. dollars, with an armed force of more than a million people and a population of 180 million against small armed forces with a national total capacity of still be 2 billion, an army of 250,000 and a population of only 16 million.

For Americans, as well as for most politicians in the world up to this point, the question is still of interest: "how did the communists win?" and there are so many answers. Some historians see the reason for the communist victory as being that they had a superior strategy. From the very beginning to the end of the wars in Indochina, the communists set themselves only one task: the independence and unification of Vietnam, and in the long term of all French Indochina. They achieved their goal through the creation, development and application in practice of a coherent, long-term and excellent strategy - the strategy of the revolutionary liberation war, which has become the main ingredient of victory. So, in itself, no strategy is better or worse than another. In some cases, one is suitable, in others - another concept.

The best strategy is the one that best suits the actual conditions in which the war is fought.

During the course of the war, the liberation army always faced key aspects. First, the aim of the Liberation Army was to acquire George C. Herring. Cuc chin di ngy gia nc M v Vit Nam 1950 - 1975. Nh xut bn Cng an nhn dn. HNi. 2004. (bn ting Vit do Phm Ngc Thch dch), V.65-79.

Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), pp. 177-179.

Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), P.182.

political control within the state. Both sides or one of them may be secretly or openly assisted by foreign countries, however, at its core, this is not only a political war, but an all-out war. To conduct it, the forces of the whole people are mobilized and all means are used: military, political, diplomatic, economic, demographic and psychological. Secondly, all forces are used as a whole. This includes the use of all means of influence by a small group of leaders whose experience includes not only military theory, but also political science, psychology and diplomacy. Thirdly, the strategy of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam was to mislead, words and theories were used to confuse the enemy, deceive him from understanding reality and thus make him take wrong countermeasures 195.

To win, the US had to create a more powerful strategy.

The USA had a huge amount of money, a modern military, excellent military advisers, powerful allies, etc., but they did not know the situation in Vietnam well. Vietnam is an Asian country with many jungles, no one could know the terrain in Vietnam better than the Vietnamese. And this is also a lesson for the occupiers, such as the United States. Let us add that the US government acted in conditions when they quickly lost the support of their population 196.

In addition, North Vietnam received huge support and assistance from the Soviet Union. Fraternal friendship and solidarity, all-round cooperation and mutual assistance are concepts that fully reflect the nature of relations between the peoples of the Soviet Union and Vietnam, which were built on the principles of Marxism-Leninism and socialist Isaev M.P., Chernyshev A.S. Vietnamese relations (1917-1985). Moscow "International Relations", 1986, p.123.

Tuyn tp L Dun, tp 1 (1950 - 1975), cng cch mng min Nam, L Dun, Nxb. S tht, H Ni, 1987, T.135.

internationalism. From the very beginning of the escalation of the US armed intervention in Vietnam, the Soviet Union and the DRV proceeded from the fact that this aggression is a provocation not only against one socialist country

- The DRV, but against all the countries of socialism, that under the current conditions, strengthening the unity and cohesion of the socialist countries is a top priority.

At the initiative of the Soviet Union, at the end of April 1954, a document was signed in Geneva recognizing the independence of Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia, as well as restoring peace in the region. As a result, two parts of the country were formed, separated by a conditional border: North Vietnam, led by Ho Chi Minh, and South, headed by Ngo Dinh Diem.

If Ho Chi Minh was a leader with real authority among the local population, supported by the countries of the socialist camp, then Diem turned out to be an ordinary puppet of the West. Soon, Diem lost even the appearance of popularity among the people, and a guerrilla war broke out in South Vietnam. The democratic elections scheduled by the Geneva Act turned out to be completely unprofitable for the Europeans, since it became clear that Ho Chi Minh's victory was predetermined. It should be noted that the communists from the DRV played an important role in the development of the partisan movement. Soon the United States intervened in the conflict, but the lightning-fast conquest of the country did not take place.

The southern part of Vietnam was almost completely covered with impenetrable jungle, in which the partisans successfully hid. Military operations, customary and effective in Europe, were inapplicable here, the communist North provided significant support to the rebels. After the Tonkin Incident, the US Air Force bombed

"International Relations", 1986, p.128.

Northern Vietnam. Black phantoms were sent to Hanoi and, exerting a psychological impact on the population, destroyed mainly military facilities. The air defense system in the underdeveloped country was almost completely absent, and the Americans quickly felt their impunity.

On July 22, 1954, in connection with the signing of the Geneva Accords, Ho Chi Minh sent a message to the Vietnamese people, which, in particular, noted: “The actions of our delegation and the assistance of the USSR delegation allowed us to win a major victory at the Geneva Conference” 198. Thus Thus, Soviet-North Vietnamese relations were strengthened even before the period of repelling US aggression (1965-1975). In June 1964, when warships of the US 7th Fleet, the Soviet The Union strongly condemned the aggressive actions of the United States against North Vietnam and demanded that Washington immediately stop military provocations against the DRV, which threatened to escalate into a major armed conflict, with all the ensuing dangerous consequences for the cause of peace in Southeast Asia and throughout the world. The aggressor was unequivocally told that the USSR would not remain an indifferent observer in the face of the adventurist plans hatched against the DRV and would render North Vietnam all necessary assistance and support.

Help from the USSR followed immediately. To be more precise, Soviet support for the young people's state was carried out a year before the famous meeting in 1965, however, large-scale deliveries of military equipment began after the official decision was made and the issues of transportation through China were settled. In addition to weapons, Soviet military and civilian specialists went to Vietnam,

Isaev M. P., Chernyshev A. S. History of Soviet-Vietnamese relations (1917-1985). Moscow

"International Relations", 1986, p.125.

as well as correspondents. In fact, only officers and privates were present on the territory of North Vietnam, called to train local military personnel in the management of Soviet equipment and weapons. Contrary to the expectations of the Americans, who predicted the appearance of the first results of such training only in a year, the Vietnamese entered into a confrontation after only two months.

Perhaps such an unexpected and unpleasant circumstance for the American command gave rise to suspicions that Soviet pilots, and not at all local soldiers, were on the side of the enemy.

However, it cannot be denied that the Americans had reason not to trust the assurances of the USSR about the exclusively advisory mission of military specialists. The fact is that the majority of the population of North Vietnam was illiterate. The vast majority were starving, people were exhausted, so ordinary fighters did not even have a minimum margin of endurance and strength. Young men could only endure ten minutes of combat with the enemy. There was no need to talk about skill in the field of piloting on modern machines. Despite all of the above factors, during the first year of confrontation with North Vietnam, a significant part of American military aircraft was destroyed. MiGs outperformed the legendary phantoms in maneuverability, so they successfully evaded pursuit after the attack. Anti-aircraft systems, thanks to which most of the American bombers were shot down, were difficult to eliminate, since they were located under the cover of dense tropical forests. In addition, intelligence worked successfully, reporting fighter sorties in advance.

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