Russian Federation at the turn of the 20th century. Russia of the XXI century
International relations occupy an important place in the complex of world relations. International relations at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries were characterized by dynamic development and unpredictability. They are determined by a set of relations in various areas that can act as independent structural components of the international system. The features of international relations of this period were determined by the presence of various facts: the split of the world into two opposing systems, the creation of atomic and other types of weapons, globalization, etc. The second half of the twentieth century was determined by an increase in economic and political integration, expressed in the creation large quantity international and interstate organizations.
During the short period after the end of World War II, the UN, NATO, and the IMF were created, the foundations of the European Union and the OECD, the CMEA and the Warsaw Pact, etc. were laid. The most important element international relations after the end of World War II, the creation of the United Nations (UN) became an extension and strengthening of these relations. In April 1945, the conference decided to create the UN and its Charter. As an international organization, it deals with issues of arms control, general disarmament, settlement of major intrastate conflicts, and resolution of interstate problems. If we talk about the modern structure of the UN, it has been significantly expanded, and was expressed in the creation of a number of specialized organizations involved in solving problems in certain areas. The most famous are WHO (World Health Organization), UNESCO (UN Special Agency for Educational and Cultural Affairs), and others. Thus, in modern times the UN covers a wider range of important sectors of the functioning of society, which indicates its importance in the modern world.
Peacekeeping operations, which are a tool aimed at reconciling the parties and mediating in negotiations, are acquiring the greatest relevance within the framework of UN activities. However, settling relations and maintaining peace are not the main functions of the UN; in accordance with the Millennium Declaration, important functions include: eliminating poverty and hunger; ensuring environmental sustainability; ensuring universal primary education; fight against dangerous diseases etc. If we talk about the results of the UN, they are extremely contradictory due to the presence of a number of events, intervention in which did not contribute to their resolution. It is in the UN organization that there is enormous potential for interstate interaction. It becomes absolutely obvious that the activities of the UN are important and affect all areas modern society and the world in general. The UN plays an extremely significant role in the process of consolidating the world community. New units of the post-war period began to be created, which functioned in various spheres of international life.
As part of their activities, they defined the foundations of international politics: the protection of human rights and freedoms, the solution of economic problems, the resolution of interstate contradictions and conflicts within states. The 20th and 21st centuries were defined by controversial events such as the Cold War, the arms race, regional conflicts, peace agendas, the creation of international organizations and the maintenance of peace and security. The beginning of 1950 was the period of the Cold War, the creation of thermonuclear weapons, and later the appearance of intercontinental ballistic missiles. An arms race began between the superpowers of the USSR and the USA. The desire to strengthen their positions on the world stage led to the organization of military-political blocs in different regions. But, nevertheless, the 1970s became a period of détente in international tension. As for the 1990s, they are associated with a joint change in the geopolitical situation in Europe and the world. The main direction for defusing international tension was the settlement of relations around Germany. And the next step was the Soviet-American negotiations in 1972–1974. At this level, a document was adopted on the foundations of relations between the USSR and the USA. In 1991, the CMEA and OVD were liquidated. In September 1990, representatives of the GDR, West Germany, Great Britain, the USSR, the USA and France signed an agreement to resolve the German issue and unify Germany. The USSR withdrew its troops from Germany and agreed to the entry of a united German state to NATO. Already by the beginning of the 80s. The bipolar model of the world was replaced by a model that included, along with the USSR and the USA, Western Europe, Japan and China. In the field of strategic resources, the Middle East and South Africa retain their positions.
Thus, the rise of a multipolar world order has significantly narrowed, if not eliminated, the likelihood of any one state maintaining or emerging as a superpower capable of single-handedly controlling the state of affairs in the world. The world is becoming more diverse, and opportunities are gradually expanding amid individual, group and national choices. Within the framework of changing conditions, world problems arise, the collapse of Yugoslavia and the creation of an independent Czech Republic and Slovakia, the creation single state Germany, then the collapse of the USSR led to the emergence of new regional conflicts that have not been resolved to this day. The geopolitical situation in the world gradually changed, and the system of international relations between socialist states ceased to exist. The countries of Eastern Europe have reoriented themselves to the West.
However, such a development of events could lead to the creation of a new structure in Europe and destabilize the entire system of international relations. Thus, military contradictions in the European region and the difficulties of the transition period in the countries of Eastern Europe and the post-Soviet space will create a threat to security in Europe. IN modern conditions this is complemented by religious and ethnic intolerance, terrorism, organized crime, etc. Solving these problems requires new enormous efforts and comprehensive measures to preserve and strengthen peace and international security. Humanity in the 21st century is faced not only with new global problems, but also with a changed geopolitical situation.
That is why security is not associated with deepening confrontation between countries and peoples, but with the search for new ways and directions of comprehensive and mutually beneficial cooperation that can ensure the preservation and flourishing of human civilization. Thus, the beginning of the 21st century. determined by a new world order based on international security and cooperation. The following tasks were brought to the fore: – Ensuring international order; – Improving legislation and prevention mechanisms international conflicts and contradictions; – Ensuring the protection of the environment, human values, material and spiritual culture; – Equality of all states supporting it. The basic principles of international relations can be considered the transition to a multipolar world order, the emergence of global problems, and the division of the world into two poles (North and South). All this indicates the contradictory nature of the development of modern relations and the need for their careful study.
Literature 1. Barkovsky A.N., Obolensky V.P. Foreign economic policy of Russia in the global economic space // Russia and the modern world. 2005. No. 3. pp. 11–20. 2. Bovin A. Leading trends in the development of international relations // International life. 2004. No. 4-5. 3. Dakhin V. Russia in the modern world // State service. 2003. No. 4. 4. International relations: theories, conflicts, organizations: training manual/ ed. P.A. Tsygankova. M.: Alfa-M, 2004. 288 p. 5. Modern international relations: textbook / ed. A.V. Torkunov. M.: ROSSPEN, 1999. 584 p. 6. Karaganov S.A. 21st century: contours of the world order // Russia in global politics. 2005. №5.
V.A. Rashchupkin, A.V. Arkaeva
In the history of mankind, Europe has always been of great importance. IN late XIX V. in one of the fundamental works of Russian historical and social literature, the book “Russia and Europe,” N. Ya. Danilevsky noted “the enormous results of the historical life of Europe.” The peoples of Europe, according to him, not only founded powerful states that extended their power to all parts of the world, but also established abstract legal relations between citizens both among themselves and with the state. This gives grounds to call the European “cultural-historical type... dual-basic with a predominantly scientific and industrial character of culture in the strict sense of the word.”
But the situation in the world was changing quickly. Already in 1900, the United States, which was in early XIX V. backward agricultural country, moved to 1st place in the world in terms of industrial production development. This accelerated advancement of the United States to a dominant economic position was facilitated by the results of the First World War (1914–1918), and the Second world war(1939–1945) finally ensured the primacy of the United States, which, thanks to the rapid development of its economy, became a leading world power.
An economic recovery unprecedented in duration and size took place in the United States at the end of the 20th century. beginning of XXI c.: the US share in world GDP has reached almost a third (in 2000 - 30.4%). But the events of September 11, 2001 marked the beginning of a new stage in the political development of the whole world. The aftermath of the terrorist attack in New York demonstrated the power of the “lone superpower,” as US citizens began to call their country. At the same time, these tragic events showed the weakness of the positions of other developed countries and the urgent need for them to strengthen their economic, scientific, technical and military-political potential. And above all, this concerns Europe, which has long been considered the second “center” modern world. Journalists have characterized the recent active work of the leaders of the European Union very figuratively: “Europe craves independence.” It's about creating United Europe, playing a dominant role in global economics and politics. Its emergence may be the most important event of the 21st century.
Task this manual– to reveal the process of consolidation of the economies of European countries as an integral part of the globalization of economics and politics, to show its complex nature, and also to tell what an important role Russia is called upon to play in the fate of a uniting Europe. To deepen the analysis of the problems of the world economy, European economic models, the modern post-industrial economy of European countries, features of its dynamics, and the evolution of the role of the European Union in international economic relations are consistently examined. In particular, it talks about the contradictions between the developed countries of Europe and the leading overseas power – the United States.
Taking into account the advanced process of creating a United Europe, the book describes in detail the national economies of the main European countries. At the same time, not only achievements are noted, but also contradictory trends and possible prospects.
Much attention is paid to the consideration of socio-economic and political ties between the countries of Western Europe, China, India and Russia. New directions in their relations are analyzed, assumptions are made about the nature of future cooperation between Russia and the United Europe and the role that the Russian-European union can play in the development of the modern world.
The book is written on the basis of an analysis of foreign and domestic scientific literature, publications in periodicals, and statistical materials. It was prepared on the basis of lectures on the economics of European countries, which Professor G. P. Chernikov has been reading for a number of years at the Moscow state institute(University) of International Relations, Moscow State Institute of Commerce and other educational institutions.
Apparently, already in the first decades of the 21st century. Russia will have to deal not just with a grouping of European countries equal in strength to the United States and China and superior to Japan, but with a kind of United States of Europe. Currently, the European Union has already come close to transforming into a deeply integrated union of states with a common supranational system of governance, politics, defense, currency and a common economic and social space.
To understand the reasons for the creation of such an association, it is necessary to consider its objective foundations, changes taking place in world politics, features of the historical past and modern international relations of European countries. The state of the natural, demographic and financial resources of these countries is also of decisive importance.
Globalization. The main forms of its manifestation
The internationalization of economic activity developed at all stages of the formation of the world economy, constituting its basis. But over the past decades, under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution and a number of other factors, the internationalization of life has acquired a new quality, which is called globalization.
So, globalization is qualitative new level internationalization of all aspects of the life of modern society, production, exchange of goods, economic, socio-political and cultural relations, etc. At the same time, we are talking not only about the breadth of phenomena, but also about qualitative changes.
The concept of globalization entered scientific circulation in the early 80s of the 20th century and determined, first of all, the scale of all socio-economic changes occurring in world civilization. In 1983, the American scientist R. Robertson first used the term “globalization” in the title of one of his articles, and in 1992 he was one of the first to outline the concept of globalization.
IN recent years A number of monographs, articles, etc. on the problems of globalization have been published in Russia and abroad. Much attention is paid to revealing the prerequisites for the development of globalization production(new technologies, information revolution), organizational(development of new entities of the world economy), economic(widespread subspecialization, qualitative shifts in the evolution of international financial markets), etc. Research, as a rule, emphasizes that in this process a level of internationalization of the economy is achieved at which it is possible to state the formation of a globally integrated economy.
Church and Empire. The situation at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries
Almost 15 years have passed since the day when religion in Russia was released outside the “ghetto” in which it was located throughout the entire “Soviet” period of our history. Until this point, officially sanctioned religion existed under strict government control, which consisted of the following:
The churches were open, but not all of them (in Moscow, within the Moscow Ring Road, out of about a thousand churches, 44 remained open, in Leningrad - ten, in regional centers from one to three, etc. There were, however, also regional centers where churches was not at all), while the monasteries practically did not exist - with the exception of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.
The baptism of each infant was reported to the parents' place of work so that they would be punished and possibly fired from their jobs. Priests who practiced baptism in the homes of believers were punished and often lost their registration with the Council for Religious Affairs, and therefore could no longer serve in their parish and became unemployed. No preaching outside the walls of the church, even in private apartments, was allowed and was immediately equated with anti-Soviet activity. However, even in churches, priests for the most part tried not to preach. Everyone was silent, with the exception of a few people, among whom Father Alexander Men stood out.
At the same time, the Church was officially under the protection of the Soviet government. Patriarch Pimen, now deceased, was treated in the same hospital where members of the Politburo were treated, and rested in the sanatorium of the CPSU Central Committee, and also attended official receptions in the Kremlin.
Today, throughout Russia, thousands of old churches are being restored and hundreds of new ones are being built, and the bishop in each region is not only surrounded by honor, but is perceived as the second person after the governor. Higher state officials participate in religious services, etc. Icons, crosses, etc. are sold everywhere, as well as books - prayer books and biographies of saints. These books are available everywhere in huge quantities. The Bible and even just the New Testament are not available everywhere, although the Russian Bible Society distributes it throughout the country. There is an acute shortage of books for studying and in-depth or spiritual reading of the Bible.
However, behind this idyllic shell lies a rather complex content. Divine services are performed everywhere in the medieval Slavic language, which is almost incomprehensible to the vast majority of parishioners. Beautiful in itself, the Slavic language - this analogue of Catholic Latin - today, in fact, is an obstacle to the religious quest of modern man. It makes the already long services of the Byzantine rite inaccessible to most people, who are unable to understand their content and understand what exactly is being read and sung during the service - figuratively speaking, connect to the spiritual wave on which the service is conducted .
For this reason, the overwhelming majority of parishioners in the church are attracted not by the content of the service, but by some individual and purely ritual moments. They come here to take home holy water, kiss a revered icon or take oil blessed in front of it, kiss the relics of a saint, take communion, but nothing more. People feel (they actually feel) the presence of some higher power in the church, but at the same time the meaning of the gospel call of Jesus is crowded out of their consciousness (sometimes completely) by adherence to the ritual side of Orthodoxy. The latter leads to the fact that a huge number of people begin to perceive faith in God as magic.
In such religiosity, the main role is played not by the personal relationship of the believer with God, but by that material object, a kind of fetish, without which religion for these people loses its meaning. Associated with such religious “materialism” is the position of the priest, who begins to see himself not as a shepherd whose task is to help people on the road to God, but sui generis keeper of the shrine, a guard whose function is to prevent the “uninitiated” from approaching the shrine, that is, unprepared or in one way or another not cleansed of sin. If Jesus calls everyone to Himself with the words “Come to Me, all you who labor and are heavy laden,” then such a priest argues according to the principle profani, procul ite-"go away, you uninitiated."
He often treats parishioners extremely harshly and rudely, and may not allow them to take communion, because he believes that the person has not prepared well enough. He may declare that the person who came to him for confession is so guilty that he cannot even confess, or he may even begin to ask questions related to the intimate sphere, etc. Thus, the gospel teaching turns into system of prohibitions and intimidation of parishioners. So, for example, it is considered a great sin if a woman or girl comes to church in trousers or does not put a scarf on her head. Abuses in spiritual practice, which negatively affect the state of church life, were discussed on December 28, 1998 at a meeting of the Holy Synod.
It is necessary to understand that one of the main features of the church community today is the predominance of neophytes in it - people who became believers over the last decade and who had nothing to do with Orthodoxy and church life before the start of perestroika. An observer may get the impression that elderly women 60-75 years old, who, as a rule, make up the majority of regular parishioners of every parish, especially not an urban, but a rural parish, have always been believers. However, just 15 years ago, when the eldest of them were no more than 60, they knew nothing at all about faith and came to it at the moment when state policy regarding religion began to change.
At the same time, they naturally chose as a model for behavior an imitation of the style that was inherent in the generation of their mothers and grandmothers, that is, those people who preserved Orthodoxy as a confession and way of life during the era of Soviet power. Imitation - not only in the behavior of ordinary believers, but also in general - is becoming one of the leading features of religious consciousness today, with Russia being taken as a model second half of the 19th century centuries and protective tendencies (in the broad sense of the word, that is, from the late Slavophiles and K. Leontyev to K.P. Pobedonostsev and the “Black Hundred”) inherent in the church consciousness in that era. It was the idealization of the past (not the era of the apostles and the preaching of the Gospel or the time of great saints such as Sergius of Radonezh, but the 19th and early 20th centuries!) that led to the fact that the question of canonization of Nicholas II and members of his family, killed in 1918, became in the mid-90s 's main for a significant part of believers and those who identified their political views and worldview in general with Orthodoxy.
Read also:
|
October 28, 1991 – Y Congress of People’s Deputies of the RSFSR, programmatic speech by B.N. Yeltsin on Russia’s transition to a market, price liberalization (refusal government regulation prices) Privatization of state-owned objects Beginning of land reform (private ownership of land)
3. Creation of the Russian national currency and ensuring its convertibility. Intensification of foreign policy activities. Deputy Prime Minister of the RSFSR Government E. T. Gaidar became responsible for the implementation of the program.
4. “shock therapy” plans Free pricing will lead to a 3-fold increase in prices 70% increase in public sector salaries will compensate for population losses Reduction in arms costs by 85% results Prices for all consumer goods have increased 100 - 120 times Imports have increased sharply, which led to the closure of many enterprises and mass unemployment Loss of sources of budget replenishment Falling level of public trust in government
5. Privatization – transfer of state-owned objects to private owners. Beginning - autumn 1992. Lack of funds from the population to purchase shares. The decision to issue each citizen a VOUCHER - a privatization check. (denomination 10,000 rubles) The formation of a layer of owners began
6. Adjustment of the course of reforms December 1992 – The 20th Congress of People’s Deputies relieved him of his position. Chairman of the Government E. Gaidar and approved V. Chernomyrdin (former Minister of Gas Industry)
7. Gaidar - a supporter of liberalization Chernomyrdin - a supporter of economics, strengthening the role of the state, the situation was complicated by a fall in budget revenues, and therefore the state could not finance a new stage of reforms. reasons for continued decline 2. “Flight” of capital abroad; obtaining loans from the IMF and the World Bank; issue (GKO) of government short-term obligations.
8. The results of the first years of economic reforms are contradictory:
9. Interest payments on state bonds. Budget possibilities. Financial crisis of 1998 and its consequences. Chernomyrdin Kiriyenko 1. (announces default) - refusal of the state to pay debts. Payments under state bonds exceeded the budget's capabilities. 2. “cancellation of the currency corridor” (4-fold drop in the ruble exchange rate, depreciation of cash deposits) 3. Reduction of imports, refusal of assistance from the IMF The Kiriyenko government has been dismissed!
10. New chapter Governments E.M. Primakov: “Reliance on one’s own strengths and achieving national harmony” The fall in the ruble exchange rate means more favorable conditions for domestic producers; revitalization of the real sector of the economy 2. Fight against corruption and crime Halving the budget deficit by reducing government spending. The liquidation of wage and pension arrears has begun. May 1999 – E. Primakov was replaced by S. Stepashin. August 1999 - S. Stepashina - V. Putin.
12. Results of economic transformations: 1992-1997. – GDP decreased by 40% (56%); 1997 – cessation of inflation (but mainly due to non-payment of salaries to public sector employees; Expert opinions regarding the beginning of economic growth differ;
13. Political life: Russia is on the way to a democratic society and a rule of law state.
14. DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW CONSTITUTION. 1990 - THE 1st CONGRESS OF PEOPLE'S DEPUTIES CREATED A CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSION, BUT THE STRUGGLE OF THE POLITICAL ELITE FOR POWER DID NOT ALLOW THE REVISION OF THE 1977 CONSTITUTION. 1992 - BEGINNING OF DISCUSSION ABOUT THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL SYSTEM.
15. PRESIDENTIAL REPUBLIC PARLIAMENTARY REPUBLIC DISCUSSION Yeltsin Supreme Council confrontation Demand for adjustment of reforms; An attempt by the 2nd Congress of People's Deputies to limit the powers of Boris Yeltsin. Yeltsin's appeal from the rostrum of the congress to the citizens of Russia with an appeal to prevent the “creeping coup” 1992
16. year Yeltsin makes a statement that he intends to “stop the destructive influence of dual power on Russia”; On September 21, he signed Decree No. 1400 “On phased constitutional reform” (liquidation of the powers of the Congress and a proposal to schedule elections to the new 2-chamber parliament - the Federal Assembly on December 11-12, 1993) The Supreme Council Assessed what happened as a coup and decided to remove Yeltsin from the post of President (10th Extraordinary Congress); Appointment of Vice President A. Rutsky as acting President. 1993 The parties are looking for ways to resolve the conflict in their favor through decisive, uncompromising actions.
17. Transition of the confrontation into a power struggle Yeltsin Military blockade of the House of Soviets (“White House”); The beginning of armed clashes, by order of Yeltsin, troops were sent to Moscow; On October 4, the order is given to storm the “White House” (Yeltsin shoots the parliament - a coup d’etat!). Supreme Council Formation of paramilitary units from volunteers; The opposition breaks into the White House, an attempt is made to storm the Moscow City Hall, clashes near Ostankino; Khasbulatov and Rutskoy were arrested.
18. During these events, not only the defenders of the White House died, but also bystanders. According to official data, the exact number of deaths was 145 people.
19. Parliamentary elections and adoption of a new Constitution. December 12, 1993 Conducted on a multi-party basis.
20. Adoption of a new Constitution. Just over 50% voted for the proposed project, which allowed the Constitution of the Russian Federation to be considered adopted.
21. Parliamentary elections of 1995 And the 1996 presidential elections in the Russian Federation.
22. 35% 32% 15% By the second round, Yeltsin managed to reach an agreement with A. Lebed and win the elections with a result of 53.7%. 1st round results:
23. On December 31, 1991, Yeltsin, in an address to the people, announced that he was resigning. Presidential elections were scheduled for March 26, 2000. Chairman of the Government V.V. Putin became Acting President RESULTS: 1. Formation of parliamentarism; 2. An independent system of local self-government has been formed; 3. Formation of a multi-party system.
24. Federal center and Russian regions. Autumn 1991 – all autonomous republics of the Russian Federation declared themselves sovereign states, and most autonomous regions declared themselves republics; Territories and regions began to fight for equal socio-economic and legal status with the republics (contributions to the federal budget stopped); The constitutions of all republics, to one degree or another, contradicted the Constitution of the Russian Federation (leaders: Bashkiria, Tatarstan and Yakutia) the path to maintaining unity is the signing of a new Federative Treaty
25. On March 31, 1992, the Federal Agreement was signed. Refused to sign: Tatarstan, Chechnya; Bashkiria signed only after significant concessions. Contents – delimitation of powers of the center and the subjects. An example of the most pronounced Separatist tendencies is Chechnya. 1991 – declaration of complete independence, election of D.M. Dudayev as president. Decision on Political Resolution of the Conflict
27. End of August – beginning of September 1996. signing of the Khasavyurt agreements (Dagestan) between the Russian Federation and Chechnya Military operations ceased Federal troops were withdrawn from the territory of Chechnya 3. Preparation of an agreement between the Russian Federation and Chechnya based on the principles of international law (May 1997) an agreement on peace and principles of mutual relations was signed) Signing of an agreement on the status of Chechnya postponed by 5 years (2001)
28. Second Chechen war. (anti-terrorist operation) Background: a number of terrorist attacks, hostage takings; invasion of Chechen armed forces into the territory of Dagestan
30. Deterioration of the geopolitical and military-strategic situation:
31. Russia and the West Russia and the East Russia and the neighboring countries 1. Signing of the Camp David Declaration (1992) stating that the parties do not consider each other as potential adversaries. The end of the Cold War was recorded 2. 1993 - START Treaty - 2 (April 2000 - ratified by the State Duma) 2/3 of START -1 3. Containing NATO expansion 4 . 1994 - recognition of Russia by the EU as a country with an economy in transition 1. Reduction of economic ties with traditional partners: Mongolia, Vietnam, North Korea, Iraq 2. Improving relations with China (partnership) 3. Activation of foreign policy dialogue with Japan 1. Signing an agreement with Ukraine on the division of the Black Sea Fleet (1997) and on friendship and cooperation 2. Signing of the Treaty of Union with Belarus (1997) January 26, 2000 The instruments of ratification 3 were exchanged. Difficulties in relations with the Baltic states
32. Russia at the turn of the 21st century. Creation of 7 federal districts; Bringing local laws into compliance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation; Reform of the Federal Assembly; Adoption of the new Law “On political parties"; Judicial reform has begun; Implementation military reform; Implementation of local government reform; Approval of the State Duma in 2000 Law on National Symbols of Russia; Regular meetings of the President with leaders of Duma factions. Strengthening Russian Statehood.
33. Economics and social sphere. Stopping external borrowings and starting to pay off debts; 2001 - tax reform (single 13% tax); Adoption of laws to support small and medium-sized businesses; Agrarian reform (laws on the purchase and sale of land); Limiting the power of monopolies; Distancing the “oligarchs” from power; Increased defense spending; Budget 2002 became surplus for the first time; The beginning of reform of the healthcare and education systems, pension reform. (national projects) All this became possible thanks to high energy prices.
34. Strengthening the fight against terrorism. 1999 – invasion of militants into Dagestan; explosions of residential buildings in Buinaksk, Moscow and Volgodonsk; Autumn 1999 Federal troops entered Chechnya and took control of the most important settlements; Carrying out an anti-terrorist operation simultaneously with the restoration of the republic; 2002 - a series of terrorist attacks in various cities of Russia 2003 - a referendum in Chechnya demonstrated the desire of the residents to remain part of Russia. A. Kadyrov was elected president.
35. Acceptance of doctrine national security and information security; Participation in the counter-terrorist operation in Afghanistan (our airspace provided); 2002 - agreement with NATO on coordination of actions in ensuring international security; Agreement with the United States to reduce strategic offensive arms by 75%; Search for new approaches to politics within the Commonwealth (“color” revolutions in Ukraine, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan. New foreign policy strategy.
36. Taking into account the seats in single-mandate constituencies, United Russia received 300 seats in the State Duma (constitutional majority). 2003 ELECTIONS.
At the turn of the XX–XXI centuries. Russia found itself in a difficult socio-economic situation. As a result of military operations, political repression and famine, the country lost about a third of its population, and if we take into account the unborn, then about half. This is significantly more than any other large state. And to this day the situation remains little better. The country's mortality rate is 1.6 times higher than the birth rate, and life expectancy is almost 20% lower than the European average. The formation of a market economy in Russia is taking place extremely painfully. And before the current crisis, the standard of living in Russia was significantly lower than in other developed and even many developing countries.
The first period of V.V.’s presidency Putin's presidency (2000–2001) was marked by cooling relations with the United States and closer rapprochement with Germany and France, which are not members of NATO. In September 2001, after the tragedy in New York - the terrorist attack with the explosion of the World Trade Center skyscrapers, relations between the two countries changed. Two world powers - the Russian Federation and the USA - have joined forces in the fight against international terrorism. But even today, different approaches to the Chechen issue hinder a more durable establishment of relations with the European community and the United States.
Thus, the outgoing 20th century. left Russia a very difficult legacy:
1) poverty of a large part of Russian citizens with significant income differentiation;
2) high mortality and population decline;
3) environmental problems in most of the territory suitable for human life;
4) irrational territorial sectoral structure of production and settlement;
5) chronic budget deficit;
6) exorbitant external and internal debt;
7) criminalization of society and economy;
8) general instability and social tension.
There are positive conditions for the further development of the country, namely: 1) rich and diverse natural resources; 2) high educational level of the Russian population; 3) significant scientific potential; 4) integration into the world community; 5) relatively favorable geopolitical conditions in the country; 6) a largely implemented, although not fully completed, modification of the command-administrative economy into a market economy; 7) a saturated market for consumer goods and services; 8) convertible national currency backed by gold and foreign exchange reserves;
9) active foreign trade balance; 10) democratization of social and political life.
The future of Russia, a positive development option, is seen by political scientists and economists in the creation of a market-regulated policy for the country (the “social” option). This path of further development should take into account:
1) further strengthening of state regulation of the economy;
2) accelerating structural transformations;
3) revival of controllability of the public sector;
4) application of indicative planning;
5) development of targeted social protection of the needy population;
6) intensification of investment activities;
7) formation of a state strategy for the development of society and the economy.
In 1992, the USSR collapsed and Russia, having become an independent state, inevitably switched to market relations. That is, move away from socialism to capitalism. But this “implantation” only fueled social tension (empty store shelves, endless queues).
The leadership led by Yeltsin believed that it was necessary to carry out macroeconomic stabilization - achieving a balance between the solvent population and the supply of goods.
They assumed that the market itself would arrange the optimal structure of economic development. But this opinion was wrong. We have learned from experience that the state is one of the most important regulators of the market.
The program consisted of price reductions, free trade, and privatization of private property. Because valuables were not regulated, they rose to the limit, which led to the impoverishment of the population. And at this time, the state budget decreased and government funding for many industries fell, therefore all this entailed a colossal decrease in inflation. Privatization (denationalization). In 1 year, already 110 thousand enterprises were privatized, which resulted in the state losing its leading role in the economy. But it itself could not lead to production efficiency. It was privatized for pennies, so it could not attract the necessary resources. Since those who did not invest money were not interested in its promotion. And she did not enjoy popular love. In the summer of 1992, vouchers (privatization checks) were introduced, which were distributed to the population free of charge. but since the population became impoverished, they either sold them or invested them in exchange for shares that generated income. thus some people distributed the national wealth. Privatization led to a strong stratification of society. Only 5% participated in ec power. The security of citizens decreased, which led to a population decline of 1 million. The shadow economy, led by crime, developed well.
Policy
In 1993, elections took place that had an impact on Russia. The “Choice of Russia” party (headed by Gaidar), a liberal party, was nominated, and there were very few liberals in the country. The bloc hoped for the support of banks. And he enjoyed success, but at 1995 he could not get into parliament.
During the election campaign, another YABLOKO bloc was formed with a position of moderate liberalism. They weren't particularly successful.
The LDPR (Liberal Democratic Party of Russia) declared its anti-Western liberalism of “ordinary people.” Zhirinovsky found great support for himself in many strata of society and took 70 seats in parliament.
Zyuganov's party. The Communist Party of the Russian Federation was also popular. Ideas to restore the USSR and lead your own socialism
The presidential election campaign was more intense. Since in many republics of the Russian Federation separatism developed very well and the Russians were being squeezed. But attempts to restore law and order led to war in Chechnya. Russia's military operations were unsuccessful. Chechnya became a separate military state.
After the crisis on August 17, 1998 President Yeltsin would be forced to elevate Primakov to the post of prime minister in May 1999. Non ran the economy well, but the Duma's attempt to remove Yeltsin from the presidency suspended Primakov's rule.
Soon Chechnya attacked Dagestan (with terrorist attacks). But the troops managed to withdraw them from Dagestan. In 2000, troops occupied almost all of Chechnya. Putin was responsible for this Chechen party. Who was then appointed prime minister.
In December 1999, the next elections were held. On the eve of the party, the party “unity” was created, declaring support for Putin. Took up most of my thoughts. After Yeltsin left the presidency, Putin took over this post. in the elections on March 26, 2000, after passing 1 tr, he became president.
Upon assuming the presidency, Putin made a number of reforms:
Tax, pension, judicial and many others. Happened economic growth, depending on oil prices. The laws of the subjects were now regulated by the Federal Law of the Russian Federation. The joint opposition to international terrorism destroyed NATO (USA) and Russia (it improved their relationship) Russia began to act diplomatically with all countries.
What documents are evidence that the apartment is a service apartment?
Space donut hole
Types of discounts on Russian Railways tickets and rules for obtaining them Train tickets for students
Lecture on syndromic pathology
Organizational aspects of the activities of pharmacy organizations
Water Pressure in the Deep Ocean Practice Reports
What is inductance, its definition and unit of measurement