Basics of military topography textbook. Textbook: Military topography. Coordinate systems used in topography

Contains a complete course of military topography. The presentation is distinguished by brevity, complete coverage of the material, accessibility and clarity of presentation. Designed to teach students how to study and evaluate terrain, navigate it, use topographic and special maps, geodetic data and photographic documents, as well as take measurements on the ground when organizing, conducting combat operations and commanding troops. It is based on a course of lectures and practical classes conducted by the authors over several years at the Faculty of Military Training. Corresponds to the Federal State Educational Standard for Higher Education 3+ and the content of the cycle of disciplines F.01 “ Military training» state educational standards for the preparation of bachelors and masters. For higher education students educational institutions, studying the discipline “General Tactics”.

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Name: Military topography.

This textbook outlines a course in military topography, knowledge of which is necessary for every officer
The first section of the textbook discusses the classification, mathematical basis and geometric essence of topographic maps, their content, methods of reading and measuring them. The properties of aerial photographs, the basics of their military interpretation and the rules for their use in solving combat missions are also discussed here.
The second section is devoted to terrain orientation different ways, including with the help of navigation equipment
The third section, in relation to the practical activities of unit commanders, examines the use of maps for studying terrain, assessing its tactical properties, command and control of troops and target designation in various types of combat, as well as drawing up combat graphic documents, the procedure and methods for conducting terrain reconnaissance
The appendix contains samples of topographic maps, tables of symbols, different kinds aerial photographs.

Terrain is one of the main and constantly operating factors in the combat situation, significantly influencing the combat activity of troops. Features of the terrain that influence the organization, conduct of combat and the use of military equipment are called its tactical properties. The main ones include its maneuverability and orientation conditions, camouflage and protective properties, observation and firing conditions.
Skillful use of the tactical properties of the terrain contributes to the most effective use of weapons and military equipment, secrecy of maneuver and surprise attacks on the enemy, camouflage from observation and protection of troops from enemy fire. Consequently, when performing combat missions, each serviceman must be able to quickly and correctly study the terrain and evaluate its tactical properties.

Content
Introduction
§ 1. Subject, content, tasks and method of military topography
§ 2 The place and role of military topography in the system of combat training of troops
SECTION ONE
TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS AND AERIAL PICTURES, THEIR USE IN THE TROOPS
Chapter 1. Classification, purpose and geometric essence of maps
§ 3. Main types of cards
1.Features of the cartographic image
2. General geographical and special maps
3. Classification and purpose of topographic maps
§ 4. Mathematical basis for constructing maps
1. Geometric essence of the cartographic image
2. Distortions in map projections
3. Geodetic support networks
§ 5. Projections of Soviet topographic maps
1.Projection of maps at scales 1:25,000-1:500,000
2.Projection of a map at a scale of 1:1000000
§ b. Layout and nomenclature of topographic maps
1. Card layout system
2. Nomenclature of map sheets
3. Selection and extraction of the nomenclature of map sheets for the required area.
Chapter 2. Map measurements
§ 7. Measuring distances and areas
1.Map scale
2.Measuring lines on the map
3 Accuracy of measuring distances on the map
4. Corrections to distances for slope and tortuosity of lines
5. The simplest ways to measure areas on a map
§ 8. Determination of coordinates of terrain points and objects (targets) from a map
1.Coordinate systems used in topography
2.Definition geographical coordinates
3.Determination of rectangular coordinates
§ 9. Measurement using a map of directional angles and azimuths
1. Azimuths and directional angles
2.Measuring and plotting directional angles on the map
3.Transition from directional angle to magnetic azimuth and back
Chapter 3: Reading Topographic Maps
§ 10. System of symbols on maps
1. Completeness and detail of the terrain image
2.Principles of construction and application of symbols on maps
3 Forks of symbols
4.Color design (coloring) of cards
5. Explanatory captions and digital designations
6.General rules card reading
§eleven. Relief depiction on maps
1.Types and elementary forms of relief
2. The essence of the relief image with horizontal lines
3.Types of contours
4 Representation of elementary relief forms by horizontal lines
5.Features of depicting horizontal and mountainous terrain with contours
6. Conventional signs of relief elements that are not expressed by contours
Features of the relief image on maps of scales 1:500,000 and 1:1000,000
§ 12. Studying the relief from the map
1. Study of the structure and elementary forms of relief
2. Determination of absolute heights and mutual elevations of terrain points
3.Determination of ascents and descents
4. Determination of the shape and steepness of the slopes
§ 13. Representation of water bodies on maps
1.Coastal stripes and shores of seas, large lakes and rivers
2. Lakes, reservoirs and other bodies of water
3. Rivers, canals and other objects of river systems
4.Wells and other sources of water
5.Additional data on water bodies contained in information about the area on a map at a scale of 1:200,000
§ 14. Image of vegetation and soil
1. Main elements of vegetation cover
2. Soil cover
§ 15. Image of populated areas, manufacturing enterprises and socio-cultural objects
1.Settlements
2.Industrial and agricultural production enterprises and facilities
3. Communication facilities, power lines, pipelines, airfields and socio-cultural facilities
§ 16. Image of the road network
1.Railways
2.Highway and dirt roads
§ 17. Boundaries and geodetic points
1.Borders and fences
2. Geodetic points and individual local objects - landmarks
Chapter 4. Aerial photographs of the area
§ 18. Types and properties of aerial photographs
1.Aerial photographs as reconnaissance and measurement documents
2.Types of aerial photographs
3 Use of aerial photographs by troops
4. Geometric essence of aerial photographs
5. The concept of distortion in aerial photographs
6. Visual properties of aerial photographs
7. The concept of photographic documents
§ 19. Preparation of aerial photographs for work
1. Linking aerial photographs to the map
2. Determining the scale of a planned aerial photograph
3.Applying the direction of the magnetic meridian to aerial photographs
4. The concept of preparation for work and the use of perspective aerial photographs
§ 20. Measurements from aerial photographs
1.Accessories for working with aerial photographs
2. Sterescopic (volumetric) examination of aerial photographs
3. Determination of distances and sizes of objects from aerial photographs
4. Transferring objects from an aerial photograph to a map
5. Determination of rectangular coordinates from aerial photographs
§ 21. Interpretation of aerial photographs
1. Unmasking (decryption) signs
2.Methods of deciphering aerial photographs
3. Reliability and completeness of interpretation of aerial photographs
4.Decryption of terrain objects
5. The concept of deciphering tactical objects
SECTION TWO
TERRAIN ORIENTATION
Chapter 5. Orientation using a map and aerial photographs
§ 22. The essence of orientation
§ 23. Determination of distances during terrain orientation and target designation
1.Eye meter
2. Determination of distances based on the measured angular dimensions of objects
3. Determination of distances using the speedometer
4. Measurement in steps
5. Determination of distances based on movement time
§ 24. Instruments and methods for determining directions and measuring angles on the ground
1.Magnetic compass and its application
2.Gyrohalf-compass and its use
3. On-site measurement of horizontal angles
4. Determining and maintaining the direction of movement according to the celestial bodies
§ 25. Techniques for orienting on a map (aerial photograph)
1. Map orientation
2. Determination of your location on a map (aerial photograph)
3. Comparison of the map with the terrain
§ 26. Map orientation while moving along a given route
1.Preparing for orienteering
2. Orientation on the way
3. Features of orientation when moving in different conditions
4. Restoring lost orientation
§ 27. Movement along azimuths
1.Preparing data for movement in azimuths
2. Movement along azimuths
3.Avoiding obstacles
4. Finding the way back
5.Accuracy of movement in azimuths
§ 2S. Responsibilities of unit commanders to ensure orientation and target designation on the battlefield
1.Selection and use of landmarks
2 Terrain orientation for commanders of subordinate and supporting units
3. Activities that provide orientation when operating at night and on terrain poor in landmarks
Chapter 6. Terrain orientation using ground navigation equipment
§ 29. Operating principle and main devices of navigation equipment
1. The principle of determining the current coordinates of a moving car
2. Basic navigation equipment
3. Machine location accuracy
§ 30. Preparation for orientation
1. Inspection and commissioning of equipment
2. Balancing the direction indicator gyroscope
3.Checking the machine's sighting device
4.Studying the route and preparing a map
5.Preparation of initial data
6.Setting coordinates and directional angle
§ 31. Orientation on the terrain with the help of a coordinator
§ 32. Features of preparation for work and operation of the course plotter
R SECTION THREE
USE OF MAPS AND AERIAL PICTURES BY UNIT COMMANDERS
Chapter 7. Map as a management tool
§ 33. Preparing the map for work
1.Acquaintance with the map
2.Gluing the card
3.Folding the card
4.Raising the card
§ 34. Basic rules for maintaining and using a work card
1.Basic rules for drawing the situation on a working map
2.Use of the map when making reports, setting tasks and drawing up combat documents
§ 35. Techniques for mapping elements of your battle order and goals
1.Identification of landmarks and goals and plotting them on the map
2. Mapping the elements of your battle order
3.Determination on the ground and mapping of invisibility fields
§ 36. Target designation using maps and aerial photographs
1. Target designation in rectangular coordinates
2. Target indication by kilometer grid squares
3. Target designation from the conditional line
4. Target designation from the nearest landmarks and contours shown on the map
5. Target designation by azimuth and range to the target
6. Target designation from aerial photographs
Chapter 8. Study of the area by the unit commander
§ 37. General rules for studying and assessing terrain
§ 38. Determination of the general character of the area
§ 39. Study of observation conditions and camouflage properties of the area
1. Determination of the mutual visibility of points using a map
2.Definition and mapping of invisibility fields
3.Construction of terrain profiles from a map
4. The influence of the curvature of the Earth and atmospheric refraction on the observation range
§ 40 Study of terrain conditions
1. Study of the road network
2.Study of off-road terrain
3. Conclusions on the influence of terrain maneuverability on the performance of a combat mission
§ 41. Study of the protective properties of the area
1. Study of the protective properties of the relief
2. Study of the protective properties of forests and the nature of soils and soils
3. Conclusions on the influence of the protective properties of the terrain on the performance of a combat mission
§ 42. Study of firing conditions
1. Determining the depth of the shelter
2.Determining the angle of cover
3. Determination of target elevation angle
§ 43. The concept of predicting changes in terrain in the area of ​​a nuclear explosion
1. Determination of the degree of destruction of terrain objects and the heat of fires
2.Representation of forecasting results on the map
§ 44. Example of study and assessment of the terrain on the map by the commander
motorized rifle platoon assigned to the main marching outpost
§ 45. An example of studying and assessing the “terrain by the commander of a motorized rifle company when advancing from direct contact with the enemy
Chapter 9. Area reconnaissance
§ 46. Methods of terrain reconnaissance
1.Observation
2. Inspection of the area by patrols
3. Examination
§ 47. Route reconnaissance
§ 46. Reconnaissance of individual terrain objects
1.Reconnaissance of forests
2. Exploration of the swamp
3.Reconnaissance of the river
4. The concept of reconnaissance of terrain changes at the source of a nuclear explosion
§ 49. Graphic documents with intelligence information
1. Graphic recording of intelligence information in units
2.Types of combat graphic documents
3.Rules for drawing combat graphic documents
4. Techniques for drawing up terrain diagrams using a map or aerial photographs
Applications:
1. List of abbreviated captions used on topographic maps
II. Some approximate data on terrain traversability
III. Making a model on site
IV. Answers to examples and problems
Alphabetical subject index
V. Samples of topographic maps of the USSR
VI. Representation on maps of some varieties of flat, hilly and mountainous terrain
VII. Tables of symbols of topographic maps
VIII. Clippings from maps at scales 1:50,000 and 1:100,000
IX. Samples of aerial photographs for interpretation

1. INTRODUCTORY LECTURE… 4

1.1. Purpose of military topography. 4

2. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF TOPOGRAPHIC... 5

2.1 General provisions. 5

2.2 Classification of topographic maps. 5

2.3 Purpose of topographic maps. 6

2.4 Layout and nomenclature of topographic maps. 7

2.4.1. Layout of topographic maps. 7

2.4.2. Nomenclature of topographic map sheets. 8

2.4.3. Selection of map sheets for a given area. 10

3. MAIN TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS CARRIED OUT ON A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP. 10

3.1. Design of topographic maps. 10

3.2.Measurement of distances, coordinates, directional angles and azimuths. 12

3.2.1. Topographic map scale. 12

3.2.2. Measuring distances and areas. 13

3.2.3. Coordinate systems used in topography. 14

3.2.4. Angles, directions and their relationships on the map. 16

3.2.5. Determination of geographic coordinates of points using a topographic map. 18

3.2.6. Determination of rectangular coordinates of points from a topographic map. 19

3.2.7.Measurement of directional angles and azimuths. 19

4. READING TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS. 20

4.1. System of symbols on a topographic map. 20

4.1.1. Elements of the symbol system. 20

4.2. General rules for reading topographic maps. 21

4.3. Image on topographic maps of the area and various objects. 21

5. DETERMINATION OF DIRECTIONS AND DISTANCES WHEN ORIENTING. 23

5.1. Determining directions. 23

5.2 Determination of distances. 23

5.2 Movement along azimuths. 23

6. WORKING WITH THE CARD… 24

6.1.Preparing the card for work. 24

6.2. Basic rules for maintaining a work card. 25

7. DRAFTING TERRAIN DIAGRAMS. 28

7.1. The purpose of terrain maps and the basic rules for their preparation. 28

7.2. Conventions used on terrain diagrams. 29

7.3. Methods for drawing up terrain maps. thirty

RECORDING SHEET FOR CHANGES... 33

The actions of units and units when performing assigned tasks are always associated with the natural environment. Terrain is one of the constantly operating factors influencing combat activity. The terrain properties that influence the preparation, organization and conduct of combat operations, and the use of technical means are usually called tactical.

These include:

cross-country ability;

· orientation conditions;

· observation conditions;

· firing conditions;

· masking and protective properties.

Skillful use of the tactical properties of the terrain ensures the most effective use of weapons and technical means, secrecy of maneuver, etc. Every soldier must be able to competently use the tactical properties of the terrain. This is taught by a special military discipline - military topography, the fundamentals of which are necessary in practical activities.

The word topography comes from Greek and means description of the area. Thus, topography is a scientific discipline, the subject of which is a detailed study of the earth's surface in geometric terms and the development of methods for depicting this surface.

Military topography is a military discipline about the means and methods of studying terrain and its use in preparing and conducting combat operations. The most important source of information about the area is a topographic map. It should be noted here that Russian and Soviet topographic maps have always been higher in quality than foreign ones.

Despite the technical backwardness of Russia, by the end of the 19th century, in 18 years, the best three-verst map (in 1 inch - 3 versts) on 435 sheets was created in the world at that time. In France, 34 sheets of a similar map took 64 years to create.

During the years of Soviet power, our cartography took first place in the world in terms of technology and organization of topographic map production. By 1923, a unified system of layout and nomenclature of topographic maps was developed. The scale series of the USSR has an obvious advantage over those in the USA and England (England has 47 different scales that are difficult to coordinate with each other, the USA has its own coordinate system in each state, which does not allow joining sheets of topographic maps).

Russian topographic maps have twice as many symbols as maps of the USA and England (maps of the USA and England do not have symbols for the qualitative characteristics of rivers, road networks, and bridges). In the USSR, since 1942, a unified coordinate system has been in force based on new data on the size of the earth. (In the USA, data on the size of the Earth are used, calculated back in the last century).

The map is the commander's constant companion. According to it, the commander performs a whole range of work, namely:

· understands the task;

· conducts calculations;

· assesses the situation;

· makes a decision;

· assigns tasks to subordinates;

· organizes interaction;

· conducts target designation;

· reports on the progress of hostilities.

This clearly demonstrates the role and significance of the map as a means of managing departments. The main unit commander map is a 1:100,000 scale map. It is used in all types of combat operations.

Therefore, the most important tasks of the discipline are the study of topographic maps and the most rational ways of working with them.

An image of the earth's surface with all its characteristic details can be constructed on a plane using certain mathematical rules. As already noted in the introductory lecture, the enormous practical significance maps is determined by such features of the cartographic image as clarity and expressiveness, purposefulness of content and semantic capacity.

A geographic map is a reduced, generalized image of the earth's surface on a plane, constructed in a certain cartographic projection.

A map projection should be understood as a mathematical method of constructing a grid of meridians and parallels on a plane.

· general geographical;

· special.

General geographic maps include those on which all the main elements of the earth's surface are depicted with completeness, depending on the scale, without specially highlighting any of them.

General geographical maps, in turn, are divided into:

· topographical;

· hydrographic (sea, river, etc.).

Special maps are maps that, unlike general geographic maps, have a narrower and more specific purpose.

Special maps used at headquarters are created in advance in peacetime or during preparation and during combat operations. Of the special cards, the most widely used are the following:

· survey-geographical (for studying theater of operations);

· blank cards (for the production of information, combat and intelligence documents);

· maps of communication routes (for a more detailed study of the road network), etc.

Before considering the principles by which topographic maps are classified, we will give a definition of what should be understood by topographic maps.

Topographic maps are general geographic maps at scales of 1:1,000,000 and larger, depicting the terrain in detail.

Our topographic maps are national. They are used both for the defense of the country and in solving national economic problems.

This is clearly displayed in Table No. 1.

Table No. 1.

Topographic map scales	Classification of topographic maps by scale	Classification of topographic maps for main purpose
	large scale medium-scale	tactical
1: 200 000 1: 500 000 1: 1 000 000	" " small-scale	Topographic maps serve as the main source of information about the terrain and are one of the most important means of command and control. Based on topographic maps the following is carried out: · study of the area; · orientation; · calculations and measurements; · a decision is made; · preparation and planning of operations; · organization of interaction; · setting tasks for subordinates, etc. Topographic maps found very wide application in command and control (working maps of commanders of all levels), as well as as a basis for combat graphic documents and special maps. Now let's take a closer look at the purpose of topographic maps at various scales. Maps at scales of 1:500,000 – 1:1,000,000 are used to study and assess the general nature of the terrain during the preparation and conduct of operations. Maps at a scale of 1:200,000 are used to study and assess the terrain when planning and preparing combat operations of all types of troops, controlling them in battle, and performing marches. A special feature of a map of this scale is that on its back there is printed detailed information about the area depicted on it (settlements, relief, hydrography, soil diagram, etc.). The 1:100,000 scale map is the main tactical map and is used for a more detailed study of the terrain and assessment of its tactical properties, command of units, target designation, and carrying out the necessary measurements compared to the previous map. Topographic maps of scales 1: 100,000 – 1: 200,000 serve as the main means of orientation on the march. The 1:50,000 scale map is used primarily in defense environments. A map of scale 1: 25,000 is used for a detailed study of individual areas of the terrain, making accurate measurements, and calculations during the construction of military facilities. 2.4.1. Layout of topographic maps. Topographic maps are divided into separate sheets by lines of meridians and parallels. This division is convenient in that the frames of the sheets accurately indicate the position on the earth’s ellipsoid of the area of ​​terrain depicted on this sheet. The system of dividing a topographic map into separate sheets is called map subdivision. The entire surface of the Earth is divided by parallels at 4° intervals into rows, and by meridians at 6° intervals into columns. The sides of the resulting trapezoids serve as the boundaries of a map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000. The principle of plotting a map at a scale of 1:1,000,000 is clearly visible in Figure 1. Figure 1. Layout diagram for a map at a scale of 1:1,000,000. Now let's define a row and a column. Row – a set of trapezoids of map sheets at a scale of 1:1,000,000, enclosed between adjacent parallels with a latitude difference of 4°. There are a total of 22 rows in each hemisphere. They are designated from the equator to the poles in capital letters of the Latin alphabet: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V . Column - a set of trapezoid sheets of maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000, lying between adjacent meridians with a longitude difference of 6°. There are 60 columns in total and they are counted from the meridian 180° counterclockwise. Now we have looked at how to plot a map at a scale of 1:1,000,000. Further, the sheets of this map will serve as the basis for obtaining sheets of maps of other scales. A sheet of a millionth map (for simplicity we will henceforth call a map of scale 1:1,000,000) corresponds to an integer number of sheets of maps of other scales, a multiple of four. For example, 1:500,000-4 sheets, 1:200,000-36 sheets, 1:100,000-144 sheets. 2.4.2. Nomenclature of topographic map sheets. The nomenclature of topographic map sheets is the system of their designation (numbering). As noted earlier, the designation of sheets of topographic maps of any scale is based on the nomenclature of sheets of a millionth map, which consists of the designation of the row and column at the intersection of which a given sheet is located. For example, for a sheet with point A in Fig. 1, the nomenclature will look like this: S -36. As we have already noted, a sheet of a millionth map corresponds to an integer number of sheets of maps of other scales. To obtain a map of scale 1: 500,000, a sheet of a millionth map is divided into four parts, which are designated by capital letters A, B, C, D of the Russian alphabet, as indicated in Figure 2. 1: 500,000 (S – 36 – B) Figure 2. Layout diagram for maps at a scale of 1: 500,000. The nomenclature of a sheet of a map of scale 1: 500,000 is made up of the nomenclature of a sheet of a millionth map (S - 36) with the addition of the corresponding (letter) designation indicating the location of this sheet (for a shaded square it will be - B). Therefore, the nomenclature of this sheet will look like this: S - 36 -B. To get a map at a scale of 1:200,000, you need to divide a sheet of a millionth map into 36 parts and mark them with Roman numerals, as shown in Figure 3: 1: 200,000 (S – 36 – III) Figure 3. Layout diagram of a map at a scale of 1: 200,000. The principle of compiling the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:200,000 is similar to that discussed above. For example, the nomenclature of a map sheet indicated by a shaded square is S – 36 – III. To get a map at a scale of 1:100,000, you need to divide a sheet of a millionth map into 144 parts and mark them with Arabic numerals as shown in Figure 4. 1: 100,000 (S – 36 – 100) Figure 4. Layout diagram for maps at a scale of 1: 100,000. To obtain map sheets at a scale of 1:50,000, a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:100,000 is taken as a basis, which is divided into 4 parts and designated by capital letters A, B, C, D, as shown in Figure 5. Then the nomenclature of this map (1: 50,000) will consist of the sheet nomenclature 1:100,000 (S – 36 – 12) with the addition of a letter indicating the location of the shaded square (B). Finally it will look like this - S – 36 – 12-B. S – 36 – 100 – B - g Figure 6. Scheme for laying out sheets of maps at a scale of 1:25,000. The nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:25,000 will be composed of the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:50,000 (S – 36 – 12 – B) with the addition of a letter indicating the position of this sheet (d). For example: the nomenclature of the map sheet indicated by the shaded square in Figure 6 will be S - 36 - 12 - B - g. 2.4.3. Selection of map sheets for a given area. To select the necessary topographic map sheets for a specific area and quickly determine their nomenclature, there are special prefabricated tables. They are small-scale schematic blank maps, divided by vertical and horizontal lines into cells, each of which corresponds to a strictly defined sheet of the map of the appropriate scale. The prefabricated tables indicate the scale of the maps to which it corresponds, the signatures of the meridians and parallels, the designations of the columns and rows of the layout of the millionth map, as well as the numbers of sheets of maps of a larger scale within the sheet of the millionth map. To select map sheets for a given area, it is outlined on a prefabricated table and then the nomenclatures of map sheets are written out from left to right and top to bottom. Moreover, it is also necessary to write down the nomenclature of the sheets that the contour of the region intersects. If you have a map sheet, the nomenclature of adjacent sheets can be determined by the nomenclature signatures on the outer sides of its frames. Topographic maps are published in separate sheets, limited by frames. The sides of the internal frames are lines of parallels and meridians, which are divided into segments equal in degrees to 1´ on maps of scales 1:25,000 - 1:200,000 and 5´ on maps of scales 1:500,000 - 1:1,000,000. Segments after one they are painted over with black paint. Each minute segment on maps of scales 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 is divided by dots into six parts of 10´´. Minute segments on the northern and southern sides of the frame of maps at a scale of 1:100,000, located within latitudes 60 - 76º, are divided into three parts, and those located north of 76º - into two parts. Since the meridians to the poles come closer and, consequently, the linear dimensions of the northern and southern sides of the frames decrease with increasing latitude, for areas north of the 60º parallel, topographic maps of all scales are published in double longitude sheets, and north of the 76º parallel, a map of scale 1: 200,000 is published in triple sheets , maps of other scales – in quadruple sheets. The nomenclature of double, triple or quadruple sheets contains the designations of all individual sheets (Table 2). Table 2. Nomenclature of sheets twin built quadruple T-45-A, B,46-A, B T-43-ІΥ,Υ,ΥІ T-41-141,142,143,144 R-41-133-A, B T-41-141,142,143,144 R-41-133-A-a, b T-41-141-A-a, b, B-a, b Inside the frame, on the working field of the map, there is a coordinate grid (rectangular coordinates - for maps at scales 1:25,000 - 1:200,000 or geographical - for scales 1:500,000 and 1: 1,000,000). All design elements of a topographic map that are outside the frame are usually called out-of-frame design elements. They carry additional information about a given map sheet. Frame design elements include: 1. Coordinate system; 2. The name of the republic and region, the territory of which is depicted on this sheet; 3. Name of the agency that prepared and issued the map; 4. Name of the most significant population of the locality; 5. Card neck; 6. Nomenclature of the map sheet; 7. Year of publication of the map; 8. Year of filming or compilation and source materials; 9. Performers; 10. Deposition scale; 11. Numerical scale; 12. Amount of scale; 13. Linear scale; 14. Section height; 15. Height system; 16. Diagram of the relative position of the vertical installation of the coordinate grid, the true and magnetic meridians, the magnitude of the magnetic declination, the convergence of the meridians and direction correction; 17. Data on magnetic declination, convergence of meridians and annual change in magnetic declination. The location of the border design elements is shown in Figure 7. Figure 7. Arrangement of border design elements for maps. 3.2.1. Topographic map scale. Before moving on to considering the procedure for carrying out measurements, let us dwell in more detail on the scale of the map, as one of its most important characteristics. Map scale is the degree to which the lines on the map are reduced relative to the horizontal locations of the corresponding lines on the ground. When measuring distances, numerical and linear expressions of scale are widely used. This data is plotted on the map under the southern side of the map frame. Let's consider in more detail the concepts: numerical scale, scale value, linear scale. Numerical scale is the ratio of one to a number showing how many times the lengths of terrain lines are reduced when depicting them on a map (the expression of the scale in numerical form). It is indicated on maps in the form of a ratio 1: M, where M is a number indicating how many times the lengths of lines on the ground are reduced when depicting them on the map. For example, a scale of 1:50,000 means that any unit of length on the map corresponds to 50,000 of the same units on the ground. The scale value is the distance on the ground in meters (kilometers), corresponding to 1 cm of the map. For example: for a map with a scale of 1:50,000, 1 centimeter will be 500 meters. The scale on maps is indicated below numerical scale. Linear scale is a graphic expression of scale in the form of a scale (position 13 in Figure 7). 3.2.2. Measuring distances and areas. Straight lines are usually measured with a ruler, and curved and broken lines are usually measured with a curvimeter or measuring compass. If no one doubts the procedure for measuring the distance between two points in a straight line, then we will dwell in more detail on measuring winding and broken lines. There are two ways to measure broken and winding lines with a compass: a) the method of increasing the compass solution; b) “step” of the compass. When measuring distances using the “step” of a compass, it is necessary to remember that the smaller the opening of the compass, the smaller the measurement error will be. When using a numerical scale, the distance in centimeters taken from the map is multiplied by the scale value and the distance on the ground is obtained. For example: map 1:50,000 - the distance on the map is 2.5 cm, which means on the ground it will be equal to 2.5 x 500 = 1250 meters. When using a linear scale, you need to attach a compass or ruler to it and count off a number showing the distance between points on the ground. Practice shows that it is important to accurately determine the price of one division (depending on the map scale) of a linear scale in order to avoid errors in calculation. As a rule, all measurements must be carried out at least twice, which increases the accuracy of the results obtained. If the compass opening exceeds the length of the linear scale, then the whole number of kilometers is determined by the squares of the coordinate grid. As already noted, a special device called a curvimeter is used to measure distances. The mechanism of this device consists of a measuring wheel connected by a gear system to a pointer on the dial. When measuring, the curvimeter needle is set to the zero division and then rolled in a vertical position along the measured line, the resulting reading is multiplied by the scale value of the given map. The accuracy of measurements on a map depends on many factors: measurement error, depending on the tool used and the accuracy of working with it, map errors, errors due to wrinkles and deformation of the paper. The average measurement error ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 cm at the map scale. Errors in determining distances using topographic maps of various scales are shown in Table 3. Table 3 In addition, the route length measured on the map will always be somewhat shorter than the actual one, since when drawing up maps, especially small-scale ones, roads are straightened. In hilly and mountainous areas there is a significant difference between the horizontal layout (projection) of the route and its actual length due to ascents and descents. For these reasons, a correction must be made to the route length measured on the map (Table 4). Table 4. Areas are measured approximately, using the squares of a kilometer grid (a map grid square at a scale of 1:25,000 – 1:50,000 on the ground corresponds to 1 km², at a scale of 1:100,000 – 4 km², at a scale of 1:200,000 – 16 km²). The area of ​​a terrain area is determined on a map most often by counting the squares of the coordinate grid covering this area, and the size of the fractions of squares is determined by eye or using a special palette on an officer’s ruler (artillery circle). If an area on the map has a complex configuration, it is divided by straight lines into rectangles, triangles, trapezoids and the area of ​​the resulting figures is calculated. 3.2.3. Coordinate systems used in topography. Coordinates are angular or linear quantities that determine the position of points on any surface or in space. There are many different coordinate systems that are used in various fields of science and technology. In topography, they are used that make it possible to most simply and unambiguously determine the position of points on the earth's surface. This lecture will cover geographic, plane rectangular, and polar coordinates. Geographic coordinate system. In this coordinate system, the position of any point on the earth's surface relative to the origin of coordinates is determined in angular measure. The origin of coordinates in most countries (including ours) is taken to be the point of intersection of the prime (Greenwich) meridian with the equator. Being uniform for our entire planet, this system is convenient for solving problems of determining the relative position of objects located at a considerable distance from each other. The geographic coordinates of a point are its latitude (B, φ) and longitude (L, λ). The latitude of a point is the angle between the equatorial plane and the normal to the surface of the earth's ellipsoid passing through this point. Latitudes are counted from the equator to the poles. In the northern hemisphere, latitudes are called northern; in the southern hemisphere, latitudes are called southern. The longitude of a point is the dihedral angle between the plane of the prime meridian and the plane of the meridian of a given point. Counting is carried out in both directions from the prime meridian from 0º to 180º. The longitude of points to the east of the prime meridian is eastern, to the west is western. The geographic grid is depicted on maps by lines of parallels and meridians (in full only on maps of scale 1:500,000 and 1:1,000,000). On larger scale maps, the internal frames are segments of meridians and parallels; their latitude and longitude are written on the corners of the map sheet. System of plane rectangular coordinates. Plane rectangular coordinates are linear quantities, abscissa X and ordinate Υ, which determine the position of points on a plane (on a map) relative to two mutually perpendicular axes X and Υ. The positive direction of the coordinate axes is taken to be north for the abscissa axis (axial meridian of the zone), and east for the ordinate axis (equator). This system is zonal, i.e. it is established for each coordinate zone (Figure 8), into which the Earth’s surface is divided when depicting it on maps. The entire earth's surface is conventionally divided into 60 six-degree zones, which are counted from the prime meridian counterclockwise. The origin of coordinates in each zone is the point of intersection of the axial meridian with the equator. The origin of coordinates occupies a strictly defined position on the earth's surface in the zone. Therefore, the plane coordinate system of each zone is connected both with the coordinate system of all other zones and with the geographic coordinate system. With this arrangement of coordinates of the axes, the abscissa of points south of the equator and the ordinate west of the middle meridian will be negative. In order not to deal with negative coordinates, it is customary to conventionally consider the coordinates of the starting point in each zone to be X = 0, Υ = 500 km. That is, the axial meridian (X axis) of each zone is conditionally moved to the west by 500 km. In this case, the ordinate of any point located to the west of the axial meridian of the zone will always be positive and in absolute value less than 500 km, and the ordinate of a point located to the east of the axial meridian will always be more than 500 km. Thus, the coordinates of point A in the coordinate zone will be: x = 200 km, y = 600 km (see Figure 8). To connect ordinates between zones, to the left of the ordinate record of a point, the number of the zone in which this point is located is assigned. The coordinates of a point obtained in this way are called complete. For example, the full rectangular coordinates of a point are: x=2,567,845, y=36,376,450. This means that the point is located 2567 km 845 m north of the equator, in zone 36 and 123 km 550 m west of the axial meridian of this zone (500 000 - 376,450 = 123,550). A coordinate grid is constructed in each zone on the map. It is a grid of squares formed by lines parallel to the coordinate axes of the zone. Grid lines are drawn through an integer number of kilometers. On a map of scale 1: 25,000, the lines forming the coordinate grid are drawn every 4 cm, i.e. after 1 km on the ground, and on maps of scale 1: 50,000-1: 200,000 – after 2 cm (1, 2, and 4 km on the ground). The coordinate grid on the map is used to define rectangular coordinates and plotting points (objects, targets) on a map according to their coordinates, measuring directional angles of directions on a map, target designation, finding various objects on a map, approximate determination of distances and areas, as well as when orienting a map on the ground. The coordinate grid of each zone has digitization, which is the same in all zones. The use of linear quantities to determine the position of points makes the system of flat rectangular coordinates very convenient for carrying out calculations when working on the ground and on the map. Figure 8. Coordinate zone of the plane rectangular coordinate system. Polar coordinates This system is local, and is used to determine the position of some points relative to others in relatively small areas of terrain, for example, during target designation, marking landmarks and targets, and determining data for movement along azimuths. Elements of the polar coordinate system are shown in Fig. 9. OR – polar axis (it can be the direction to a landmark, a meridian line, a vertical line of a kilometer grid, etc.). θ – position angle (will have a specific name depending on the direction taken as the initial one). OM – direction to the target (landmark). D – distance to the target (landmark). Figure 9. Polar coordinates. 3.2.4. Angles, directions and their relationships on the map. When working with a map, there is often a need to determine the direction to some terrain points relative to the direction taken as the initial one (the direction of the true meridian, the direction of the magnetic meridian, the direction of the vertical line of the kilometer grid). Depending on which direction will be taken as the initial one, there are three types of angles that determine the direction of the points: True azimuth (A) is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from 0º to 360º between the north direction of the true meridian of a given point and the direction to the object. Magnetic azimuth (Am) is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from 0º to 360º between the northern direction of the magnetic meridian of a given point and the direction to the object. Directional angle a (DA) is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from 0º to 360º between the north direction of the vertical grid line of a given point and the direction to the object. To transition from one angle to another, you need to know the direction correction, which includes magnetic declination and the convergence of meridians (see Fig. 10). Figure 10. Diagram of the relative position of the true, magnetic meridians, vertical grid line, magnetic declination, meridian convergence and direction correction. Magnetic declination (b, Sk) - the angle between the northern directions of the true and magnetic meridians at a given point. When the magnetic needle deviates to the east from the true meridian, the declination is eastern (+), to the west - westerly (-). Meridian convergence (ﻻ, Sat) - the angle between the northern direction of the true meridian and the vertical grid line at a given point. When the vertical line of the coordinate grid deviates to the east from the true meridian, the convergence of the meridians is eastern (+), to the west - western (-). Direction correction (DC) is the angle between the north direction of the vertical grid line and the direction of the magnetic meridian. It is equal to the algebraic difference between the magnetic declination and the convergence of the meridians. PN = (± δ) – (± ﻻ) PN values ​​are taken from the map or calculated using a formula. The graphical relationship between angles has already been considered, and now let’s look at several formulas that determine this relationship: Am = α - (±PN). α = Am + (± PN). Practical use the indicated angles and direction correction are found during orientation on the ground, for example, when moving along azimuths, when directional angles are measured on the map using a protractor (officer's ruler) or an artillery circle to landmarks located on the route of movement, they are converted into magnetic azimuths, which are measured on terrain using a compass. 3.2.5. Determination of geographic coordinates of points using a topographic map. As previously noted, the topographic map frame is divided into minute segments, which in turn are divided by dots into second divisions (the division price depends on the scale of the map). Latitudes are indicated on the sides of the frame, longitudes are indicated on the northern and southern sides.

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Figure 11. Determination of geographic and rectangular coordinates on a topographic map.

Using the minute frame of the map you can:

1. Determine the geographic coordinates of any point on the map.

To do this you need (example for point A):

Draw a parallel through point A;

· determine the number of minutes and seconds between the parallel of point A and the southern parallel of the map sheet (01’ 35”);

· add the resulting number of minutes and seconds to the latitude of the southern parallel of the map and get the latitude of the point, φ = 60º00′ + 01′ 35″ = 60º 01′ 35″

· draw the true meridian through point A

· determine the number of minutes and seconds between the true meridian t.A and the western meridian of the map sheet (02′);

· add the resulting number of minutes and seconds to the longitude of the western meridian of the map sheet, λ = 36º 30′ + 02′ = 36º 32′

2.Place the point on a topographic map.

For this it is necessary (example for t.A. φ = 60º 01′ 35″, λ = 36˚ 32́׳).

· on the western and eastern sides of the frame, identify points with a given latitude and connect them with a straight line;

· on the northern and southern sides of the frame, identify points with a given longitude and connect them with a straight line;

· the intersection of these lines gives the location of t.A on the map sheet.

3.2.6. Determination of rectangular coordinates of points from a topographic map.

The map has a coordinate grid (see Fig. 12), which is digitized. The inscriptions on the horizontal lines indicate the distance in kilometers from the equator (6657 - 6657 km from the equator), on the vertical lines they indicate the number of the coordinate zone and the distance in kilometers from the conventional meridian of the zone (last three digits). For example: 7361 (7 – zone number, 361 – distance in km from the axial meridian of the zone).

The outer frame shows the outputs of the coordinate lines (additional grid) of the coordinate system of the adjacent zone.

Using a coordinate grid you can:

1. Conduct target designation on the map.

In order to approximately determine the location of an object (located in a certain square on the map), indicate the kilometer lines, the intersection of which forms the southwestern (lower left) corner of this square. The abscissa (X) is indicated first, and then the ordinate (Y).

For example (see Fig. 11): the object is in square fifty-eight, sixty-four; recording form - 5864. If it is necessary to indicate a more precise location of the target, the square is mentally divided into four or nine parts (snail).

For example: 5864 – B; 5761 – 9.

2. Determine the rectangular coordinates of any point on the map.

To do this you need (example for t.B):

· write down the abscissa of the lower kilometer line of the square in which the point is located (6657 km);

· measure the distance between the bottom kilometer line of the square and T.B. (650m)

· add the resulting value to the abscissa of the lower kilometer line;

X = 6657,000 m + 650 m = 6657,650 m

· write down the ordinate of the left kilometer line of the square in which the point is located - 7363 km;

· measure the distance between the left kilometer line and point B (600m);

· add the resulting value to the ordinate of the left kilometer line;

· У = 7363000m + 600m = 7363600 m

3. Place the point on the map using rectangular coordinates.

For this it is necessary (example for t.B. X = 57650 m, Y = 63600 m -by number whole kilometers, determine the square in which point B is located (5763);

· set aside from the lower left corner of the square a segment equal to the difference between the abscissa of point B and the bottom side of the square - 650 m;

· from the obtained point, along the perpendicular to the right, draw a segment equal to the difference between the ordinate of point B and the left side of the square - 600 m.

3.2.7.Measurement of directional angles and azimuths.

Measuring and plotting directional angles on the map is done with a protractor. The protractor scale is built in degrees.

The starting point for measuring directional angles is the north direction of the vertical kilometer line.

The translation of the directional angle into magnetic azimuth is carried out in accordance with the formulas specified in clause 3.2.4.

Azimuths are measured using such simple instruments as Andrianov's compass.

On topographic maps, the area is depicted with the greatest possible completeness and detail, depending on the scale of the map. Maps provide a holistic picture of the area, depicting all its most important components (relief, local objects, communication routes, vegetation cover, etc.). A detailed image of the relief allows you to obtain data on the position of any point not only in plan, but also in altitude. The larger the scale of the map, the more objects are depicted on it. For example, tactical maps show, whenever possible, all objects and their features that are important to the troops. The operational maps display the most significant of them, summarized by many indicators.

To correctly read a map, it is necessary to understand the symbols used and perceive them figuratively. Solid mastery of symbols is achieved not by memorizing them mechanically, but by mastering the principle of construction and the logical connection between form and semantic meaning.

Topographic maps use a unified notation system consisting of:

· conventional signs;

· color design;

· explanatory signatures;

The system is based on symbols and their color design. The rest is of secondary importance.

4.1.1. Elements of the symbol system.

Conventional signs.

Conventional signs according to their purpose and properties are divided into: linear, area, non-scale.

Linear symbols depict objects whose extent is expressed on the map scale.

Area symbols fill the areas of objects expressed on the map scale.

Each such sign consists of an outline and an explanatory designation filling it in the form of background coloring, color shading or a grid of identical icons. Area signs drawn inside the contour of an object (swamp, garden) do not indicate their position on the ground.

Non-scale ( Point symbols depict small-sized objects that are not expressed on the map scale and are represented as a point. The figurative drawing of such a sign includes this point. She is situated:

· for signs of symmetrical shape - in the center of the figure;

· for signs having a base in the form right angle- at the top of the corner;

· for signs representing a combination of several figures - in the center of the lower figure;

· for signs that have a base - in the middle of the base.

Non-scale signs also include signs of roads, rivers and other linear objects, in which only their length is expressed in scale. The size of objects cannot be determined from these signs.

Color design.

To improve readability, maps are printed in paint. Their colors are standard and approximately correspond to the color of the depicted objects:

· green (forests, shrubs, plantations...);

blue (water bodies, glaciers);

· brown (relief, soil);

· orange (motorways and highways, fire-resistant buildings);

· yellow (non-fire-resistant buildings);

· black (dirt roads, borders, various buildings, structures).

Explanatory captions

They give additional characteristics of terrain objects: proper names, their purpose, quantitative and qualitative characteristics.

Signatures in some cases are accompanied conventional icons, for example, when characterizing a forest, indicating the direction of flow of a river, its flow speed.

They are divided into full (proper names of rivers, settlements, mountains, etc.) and abbreviated (explain the meaning of some signs). For example: mash - machine-building plant, vdkch - water pumping station.

Digital symbols .

They are used when specifying the numerical characteristics of objects.

For example:

· Osipovo– number of houses in rural settlements;

· 148.5 – absolute height of the point (relative to the average level of the Baltic Sea);

M 50 - metal bridge, length - 100 m, width - 10 m, load capacity - 50 tons.

Steam. 150 – 4x3- ferry, 150 – width of the river in this place, 4x3 – 8

dimensions of the ferry in meters, 8 – carrying capacity in tons.

Reading a topographic map is the correct and complete perception of the symbolism of signs, quick and accurate recognition of the types of depicted objects from them

and their characteristic properties, as well as visual perception of their spatial location.

General rules card readers are:

1. Selective attitude to the content of cards (you need to read what is relevant to the problem being solved).

2. Cumulative reading of conventional signs (they should not be considered in isolation, but in conjunction with the image of the relief, other objects, etc.).

3. Remembering what you read.

Relief

Relief is a set of irregularities on the earth's surface, made up of various elementary forms.

The relief is depicted by horizontal lines, conventional signs and digital designations in the Baltic height system (average level of the Baltic Sea).

Horizons (isohypses) are lines of equal heights above sea level.

They can be considered as traces of the section of uneven ground by planes parallel to the level surface of the sea. The distance between cutting planes is called the section height. It is indicated below the bottom frame of the card.

The following horizontal lines are distinguished by type:

· main (solid) – correspond to the height of the section;

· thickened – every fifth main horizontal line;

· additional – depicted every 0.5 times the section height with a thin dashed line;

· auxiliary – depicted through 0.5 section heights with short strokes.

To indicate the direction of the slopes, short dashes called berg strokes are used.

Main landforms:

Mountain (varieties - mound, hill, height...) - dome-shaped elevation;

A basin is a recessed space closed on all sides;

Ridge – an elevation elongated in one direction;

A hollow (varieties - blast furnace, beam, ravine) is an elongated depression, descending in one direction.

Water bodies

Topographic maps show in detail the most important water bodies with their associated hydraulic structures.

Coastlines are depicted:

· near the seas at the highest water level;

· near lakes and rivers according to the water level during low water (lowest water level in summer).

Rivers and canals are depicted with maximum completeness and detail, revealing their properties and significance as water boundaries, landmarks, etc.

Vegetation cover and soils.

On maps of scale 1:200000 and larger, the following data can be obtained about vegetation cover and soil:

· placement of various types of soil and vegetation cover;

· size of territory;

· quality characteristics.

Soil and vegetation are depicted on maps with symbols and background coloring.

Settlements, production facilities

On maps of scale 1:500,0000 and larger, the external outlines, dimensions and layout of these objects are indicated in detail. Special attention is given to showing streets and intersections, squares, parks and other undeveloped areas.

Neighborhoods are depicted as divided into fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant. Black rectangles within blocks represent individual buildings.

Industrial and agricultural facilities are shown all with the corresponding symbols.

Road network

Railways are indicated in black.

All roads are shown on the maps. They are divided into roads with and without pavement. Color image:

· orange - motorways and highways;

· black – ground.

Improved dirt roads are indicated by two black lines drawn parallel. The width and material of the coating is indicated on the map over the symbol.

Directions on the ground are determined using a compass or approximately by the sun or the North Star. The most widely used among the troops were Adrianov's and artillery compasses. Adrianov's compass allows measurements in degrees and thousandths, but the artillery compass allows only in thousandths. The division price of Adrianov’s compass is 3º or 50 thousandths, and that of the artillery compass is 100 thousandths.

The relationship between degrees and thousands is as follows:

0 -01 =360 º = 21600 ′ = 3.6′ 1 – 00 = 3.6ُ 100 = 6º

The determination of the cardinal directions by the Sun and the clock is based on the fact that at 13.00 (14.00 summer time) it is in the south. To determine the south at other times, you need to turn the watch so that the hour hand is directed towards the Sun, then the bisector of the angle between the hour hand and number 1 (2) will point to the south.

The angle measured between the north direction of the magnetic needle and the direction towards the target (landmark) is called magnetic azimuth.

The distance to the observed objects is determined:

· eye-wise

using binoculars

· by speedometer

· steps, etc.

The eye gauge is the main and most quick way.

For a distance of up to 1000 m, the error does not exceed 10 - 15%.

A distance can be measured using binoculars if the linear dimensions of the object to which it is measured are known. The angle at which the object is visible is measured (in thousandths) and then the distance is calculated using the formula:

D = IN ∙ 1000 where: B – linear size, m.

У У – measured angle, thousand.

Step measurements are used mainly when walking in azimuth. Steps are counted in pairs (~1.5 m). A special device, a pedometer, can also be used.

The essence of movement along azimuths lies in the ability to find and maintain the desired or given direction of movement using a compass and accurately reach the intended point. Movement along azimuths is used when moving in areas poor in landmarks. The data necessary for movement in azimuths is prepared from the map. Data preparation includes:

· choice of route and landmarks;

· determination of Am and distances for each section;

· planning the route.

The route and the number of landmarks on it depend on the nature of the terrain, the task at hand and traffic conditions. If the terrain allows, then turning points are selected at landmarks that can be reached with confidence.

Selected landmarks are raised on the map (circled) and connected by straight lines. Then the directional angles (with subsequent conversion to Am) and the length of each straight section are measured from the map. The length of sections is measured in meters or pairs of steps (a pair of steps is approximately 1.5 m).

Order of movement by azimuths

At the initial landmark, using a compass, determine the direction of movement according to the second landmark and begin moving, counting the distance. To more accurately maintain the direction, you need to use additional landmarks and follow directions along the way. In the same order, but in a different azimuth, they continue moving from the second landmark to the third, etc.

The accuracy of reaching a landmark depends on the accuracy of determining the direction of movement and measuring distances.

Deviation from the route due to the error in determining the direction using a compass usually does not exceed 5% of the distance traveled. An error of 1º when maintaining the direction gives a lateral displacement of 20 m per 1 km of track.

Preparing a map for work includes familiarizing yourself with the map, gluing its sheets and folding the glued map.

Familiarization with the map consists of understanding its characteristics: scale, elevation of the relief section, year of publication, direction correction, as well as the location of the map sheet in the coordinate zone. Knowledge of these characteristics allows you to get an idea of ​​​​the geometric accuracy and detail of the map, the degree of its compliance

terrain, and the scale and year of publication, in addition, must be known for indication in documents developed on the map.

The height of the relief section, the year of publication, and the direction correction may be different for different map sheets. When gluing several sheets together, this data may be cut off or pasted over, so it is advisable to write it down on the back of each sheet of the card. You should remember the distance on the ground corresponding to 1 cm on the map, the steepness of the slopes when laid at 1 cm or 1 mm, the distance on the ground between the grid lines. All this makes working with the map much easier.

On each sheet of the map of the area of ​​operation, the units raise the signatures of the coordinate lines (nine signatures evenly spaced throughout the sheet). They are usually circled in black with a diameter of 0.8 cm and shaded yellow. In this case, when designating targets in a combat vehicle, there is no need to unroll the glued cards.

When using maps located at the junction of coordinate zones, it is necessary to determine which zone grid should be used and, if necessary, apply an additional grid of the adjacent zone to the corresponding map sheet.

Gluing the card.

Selected sheets of cards are laid out on the table according to their nomenclatures. Then, using a sharp knife or razor blade, cut off the right (eastern) margins of the sheets, except the extreme right ones, as well as the lower (southern) margins of the sheets, except the extreme bottom ones. You can use an officer's ruler, which is pressed tightly to the sheet of map and the unnecessary fields are cut off by moving from top to bottom and towards the ruler.

Advantages this method consists in reducing the time for preparing the card, and also in the fact that in the places of gluing the card will wear out less (when cutting with a knife, the edges of the cut will be sharp and the card will be wiped off at the points of contact).

The sheets are glued into columns, and then the columns are glued together. When gluing, each top sheet is placed face down on the bottom sheet. Then simultaneously lubricate the glued edges of both sheets with a thin layer of glue and, turning the top sheet face up, carefully place it on the northern field of the bottom sheet, precisely aligning their frames, as well as the exits of the grid lines and contours. The gluing strip is carefully smoothed with a clean rag or using a strip of the cut edge of the card, removing any exposed glue. Columns are glued together from right to left in the same way.

Folding the card.

The map is usually folded like an accordion to make it convenient to use without completely unfolding it and to carry it in a field bag.

Before folding, the unit’s area of ​​operations is determined, the edges of the map are folded in proportion to the width of the field bag, and the resulting strip of the map is folded in proportion to the length of the bag. The card should be folded as tightly as possible, making sure that the bends do not fall along the lines of gluing the sheets.

Drawing the situation on a map is called maintaining a working map. The situation is depicted with the necessary accuracy, completeness and clarity.

The position of friendly and enemy troops plotted on the working map must correspond to their location on the ground. The enemy's nuclear attack means, his control points and other important targets are mapped with an accuracy of 0.5 - 1 mm. The same requirements apply to mapping their firing positions, as well as the front edge and flanks. The accuracy of applying other elements of battle formations should not exceed 3 - 4 mm. Strict compliance with these requirements is necessary because effective fire support of units is possible only with accurate target designation.

In the conditions of modern military operations, which are carried out at a high pace not only during the day, but also at night, the requirements for accurate maintenance of operational maps have increased sharply. Inaccurate target designation is fraught with unjustified losses, as it makes it difficult to control units in battle and disrupts the interaction of artillery and aviation with motorized rifle and tank units.

The completeness of the situation mapped is determined by the amount of data necessary to control units in battle. Excessive data on the map complicates working with it. Data on the position of friendly troops is usually plotted two levels lower (in the battalion - before the platoon). The detail of mapping the enemy depends on the command level and functional responsibilities of the commander (chief).

The visibility of the working map is achieved by a clear and precise depiction of the combat situation, highlighting its main elements, neatly drawing tactical symbols and skillful placement of inscriptions.

Accurate and clear display of the situation on the working map largely depends on the selection and sharpening of pencils. In hot weather, hard pencils are used, and in high humidity, soft pencils are used. Thus, to maintain a work map, you need to have a set of colored pencils of different hardnesses. Sharpen the pencil in a cone shape. The length of graphite free from wood should be no more than 0.5 cm. When maintaining work cards, felt-tip pens are used only for making inscriptions, markings and filling out tables. It is not recommended to apply the situation with them, since it is difficult to remove individual elements from the map that are outdated or applied erroneously.

To plot the situation on a map, you also need to have an officer’s ruler, a measuring compass, a pencil eraser, a penknife, and a curvimeter.

The procedure for drawing the situation on a working map.

Each officer maintains his work card personally and in such a way that any other officer can easily understand the situation displayed on it.

These conditions are applied with established conventional signs in thin lines. At the same time, it is necessary to strive to ensure that the topographic base of the map is obscured as little as possible and that landmarks, names of settlements, rivers, elevation marks, signatures near bridges and other numerical characteristics of terrain features are clearly readable on it.

Position of friendly troops, including units technical support, their tasks and actions are indicated in red, except for missile troops, artillery, air defense troops and special troops, which are indicated in black.

The position and actions of enemy troops are shown in blue using the same symbols as friendly troops.

The numbering and names of units and subunits and explanatory inscriptions relating to friendly troops are in black, and those relating to the enemy are in blue.

Symbols of troops, fire weapons, combat and other equipment are drawn on the map in accordance with their actual position on the ground and oriented in the direction of action or firing; symbols of NP, KNP, CP, anti-aircraft, radio equipment are oriented towards the north. Inside or next to the symbols of fire weapons, combat and other equipment, if necessary, indicate the number and type of these weapons.

The location and actions of troops are indicated by established conventional symbols with a solid line, and intended or planned actions - with a broken line (dotted line). Reserve troop deployment areas and reserve positions are indicated by a broken line with the letter Z inside or next to the sign. False troop deployment areas, false structures and objects are indicated by a broken line with the letter L inside or next to the sign. The length of the dashes of the dashed line should be 3 - 5 mm, and the distance between the strokes should be 0.5 - 1 mm.

Sources of obtaining data about the enemy are designated in black, as a rule, by the initial letters of the names of the sources (observation - N, testimony of prisoners - P, enemy documents - DP, military intelligence - VR, aerial reconnaissance - A, etc.). The inscription is made in the form of a fraction: in the numerator - the source of information, in the denominator - the time and date, which includes data about the enemy. Information that requires verification is marked with a question mark, which is placed to the right of the enemy’s object (target).

If there are no established symbols or abbreviations, additional ones are used, which are specified (explained) on the free space of the map.

The route of movement is shown by a brown line 0.5 - 1 mm thick, located on the south or east side of the road sign at a distance of 2 - 3 mm from it. When drawing a line, it is necessary to ensure that it does not obscure the symbols of roadside structures, bridges, embankments, excavations and other objects that can serve as landmarks or have any influence on the march. If necessary, this line should be interrupted. The explored route is shown with a solid line, and the planned (planned) and alternate route is shown with a dotted (dashed) line.

Conventional signs to designate a unit during movement are applied, as a rule, once, at the beginning of the movement route, and intermediate positions are depicted with circles (exact places) or transverse lines (countable) places on its route indicating the time of the position. Conventional signs for marching columns are shown on the north or east side of the conventional road sign.

Control points are plotted on the map so that the line of the flagpole rests on its location on the ground, and the figure of the sign is located in the direction opposite to the direction of its forces.

When plotting the position of a unit (part) at different times on a map, the symbols are supplemented with strokes, dots, dotted lines and other symbols or shaded with a different color.

The position of friendly troops and enemy troops at the same time is shaded with the same icons or shaded with the same color on the inside of the symbol.

The time to which a particular troop position relates is indicated under the name of the unit or next to it (in a line). In some cases, these inscriptions can be placed on a free space on the map with an arrow from the inscription to the symbol. Time is indicated in Moscow. If it is necessary to indicate local (zone) time, a reservation is made about this. Hours to minutes, date, month and year are written in Arabic numerals and separated by dots. If necessary, meteorological data necessary for assessing the radiation situation and meteorological data in the surface layer of air necessary for assessing the chemical situation are applied to the map.

Local objects and relief elements that can have a significant impact on fighting or mentioned when giving orders and target designations, they are raised (highlighted) on maps:

· signatures of settlements, railway stations and ports are underlined in black (enlarged if necessary);

· forests, groves, gardens and shrubs are outlined with a green line;

· the coastlines of lakes and rivers are outlined, and the symbols of rivers depicted in one line are thickened in blue;

· the swamps are covered a second time with blue shading parallel to the bottom side of the map frame; symbols of bridges and gates are enlarged;

· landmarks depicted by off-scale symbols are circled with a black circle with a diameter of 0.5 - 1 cm;

· thicken one or more horizontal lines with a light brown pencil, the vertices of the command heights are shaded with the same color;

· captions of elevations and contour lines are enlarged.

As a rule, lifting the map, making inscriptions (service title, signatures of relevant officials, secrecy stamp, copy number, etc.) and drawing the situation are carried out first, then the necessary tabular data is drawn (pasted), and the encoding of rectangular coordinates ( along the grid squares) and applying an additional coordinate grid (if necessary) is done last.

Making inscriptions on the map. The visibility and readability of a map largely depends on good execution and correct location inscriptions. To design a work map and apply explanatory notes on it, a drawing font is recommended, which is clear and easy to execute. It is characterized by the fact that letters (numbers) in a word (number) are written separately.

Capital letters and numbers in front of letter inscriptions have the same thickness as lowercase letters, but are written ⅓ higher than the size of lowercase letters. The angle of inclination of letters and numbers is 75º with the base of the line.

All inscriptions on cards are placed parallel to the upper (lower) side of its frame. The height and size of the letters in the inscriptions depend on the scale of the map, the significance of the object or military unit being signed, its areal size or linear extent. The spaces between letters in words are equal to ⅓ - ¼ of their height. The distance between words or between numbers and words must be at least the height of the capital letter. To ensure good readability of the map, the numbers and names of subordinate units, for example, a platoon (company, battery), should be written immediately when plotting their position on the map; the number and name of your company (battalion) should be entered after drawing the entire situation for the company (battalion).

The inscription is placed opposite the middle of the unit’s front in a free place at a distance from it approximately 2/3 of the depth of the battle formation. The inscriptions should be placed so that they do not intersect with the lines of tactical symbols.

The minimum height of the inscription (lowercase letters) for the lowest military unit displayed on a map of scale 1: 50,000 is taken equal to 2 mm. As the military level increases by one level, the size of the inscription increases by 2 mm. For example, if the lowest military unit displayed on the map is a platoon, then the height of the letter inscription for a platoon will be 2 mm, a company - 4 mm, a battalion - 6 mm. The size of explanatory inscriptions is taken to be 2 - 3 mm. On a map of scale 1:25,000, the inscriptions are enlarged, and on a map of scale 1:100,000 they are reduced by 1.5 times.

When indicating the numbering and affiliation of units, for example, 1 MSV 2MSR, 4MSR 2 MSB, the size of the numbers and letters should be the same for the platoon and company (in the first example) and for the company and battalion (in the second example). The size of letters and numbers in this case is determined by the value of the military unit that comes first.

When organizing combat, controlling units and fire, in reconnaissance and transmitting information, combat documents developed on topographic maps or terrain diagrams are widely used. Such documents are usually called graphic documents. They complement, explain, and in some cases replace written documents, allowing a more visual representation of the situation. Therefore, unit commanders need to be able to compose them quickly and competently.

It is not always possible to display in detail the necessary data on a topographic map, for example, data on the location of combat assets of units and the enemy, the fire system, etc. In addition, due to the generality of its content and aging, some terrain details necessary for the unit commander when planning combat operations and control may be missing. unit and fire. Therefore, terrain diagrams - simplified topographical drawings of small areas of terrain drawn up on a large scale - are widely used as the basis for graphic combat documents developed in units. They are compiled by unit commanders using a topographic map, aerial photographs, or directly on the ground using visual survey techniques, using goniometric and navigation instruments available in the unit.

When drawing up terrain maps, certain rules must be followed. First of all, you should understand what the diagram is intended for, what data and with what accuracy need to be displayed on it. Based on this, they determine the scale of the diagram, its size and content, and choose the method of drawing up the diagram.

Diagrams usually show individual objects areas that are necessary for accurately linking the situation to the terrain, have the value of landmarks or can have a significant impact on the accomplishment of the task. The most important objects are highlighted when drawing a diagram. If necessary, make perspective drawings of terrain objects, placing them in free space or in the margins of the drawing with an arrow showing their location on the diagram. Instead of drawings, you can paste photographs of objects onto the diagram. To more accurately indicate an object, magnetic azimuths and distances to it from easily identifiable local objects can be marked on the diagram.

Features of the area that are not expressed graphically are outlined in a legend placed in the margins of the drawing or on its back.

The drawing is placed on a sheet of paper so that the opponent is on the side of the top edge of the sheet.

In the free space of the diagram, an arrow shows the direction to the north, the ends of the arrow are signed with the letters C (north) and Y (south).

The scale of the diagram (numerical or linear) is shown under the bottom of its frame. If the diagram is drawn up on an approximate scale, a reservation is made about this, for example, a scale of about 1: 6000. In such cases, when the scale of the diagram is not the same in its different directions, its value is not indicated, and the distances between objects are written on the diagram, for example, distances from front edge to landmarks.

On a diagram drawn up from a map at a certain scale, the lines of the coordinate grid or their extensions beyond the frame of the diagram are shown. Above the top side of the diagram frame (under the name) indicate the scale, nomenclature and year of publication of the map on which the diagram was compiled.

Local objects and landforms on terrain diagrams are represented by conventional symbols. Terrain objects, the symbols of which are not shown in the figure, are depicted on the diagrams with cartographic symbols with their sizes increasing by 2 - 3 times.

Settlements are shown in black in the form of closed figures, the outlines of which are similar to the configuration of the external borders of populated areas. Inside such figures, shading is applied with thin lines. If a settlement consists of several blocks spaced more than 5 mm from each other on the scale of the diagram, then each block is crossed out separately. Streets (driveways) are shown only in those places where highways and improved dirt roads are suitable, as well as along rivers and railways passing through a populated area. The width of the conventional street sign (the distance between the lines) is taken from 1 to 2 mm, depending on the scale of the diagram and the width of the street.

Highways and improved dirt roads are drawn with two thin parallel black lines with a clearance of 1–2 mm (depending on the scale), and dirt (country) roads are drawn with solid lines 0.3–0.4 mm thick. At the point where the road approaches a populated area, a small (0.3 - 0.5 mm) gap is made between the road and street signs.

If the road drawn by a double line runs along the outskirts of a populated area, the conventional road sign is not interrupted; a block of the populated area is drawn close to the road sign. From the conventional sign of the dirt road, blocks are drawn at a distance of 1 - 2 mm.

Railways drawn with a black symbol 1 - 2 mm wide with alternating light and dark stripes every 4 - 5 mm.

Rivers drawn with one or two lines of blue color. Inside the symbol of a river, depicted in two lines, as well as a lake, a reservoir, several thin lines are drawn parallel to the coastline. The first line is drawn as close to the shore as possible, and towards the middle of the river or reservoir, the distances between the lines are gradually increased. If the river is narrow (up to 5 mm in the diagram), instead of solid lines, dashed lines are drawn along its bed.

Forest are shown with oval-shaped symbols of green color located along the contour of the forest. First, a dotted line (dots or short lines) marks the boundary of the forest with the most characteristic bends. Then semi-ovals with a length (diameter) of up to 5 mm are drawn so that their convex parts touch the dotted lines. The semi-ovals should be extended along the lower (upper) edge of the sheet. If the bend of the edge serves as a guide, and it is impossible to convey it with an oval-shaped sign, the forest boundary is supplemented with a dotted line.

Bush depicted as closed ovals of green color, elongated from left to right. In this case, first, one large oval measuring approximately 3 x 1.5 mm is drawn, and then three or four small ovals are drawn around it. The number and location of such signs depend on the size of the bush area. As a rule, the boundaries of the bush are not shown.

Relief are depicted with horizontal or brown strokes, and relief details that are not expressed by horizontal lines are represented by cartographic symbols. The peaks of mountains and ridges on diagrams of mountainous areas are depicted with strokes. On diagrams of hilly terrain, individual heights are shown by one or two closed horizontal lines. When depicting relief forms with horizontals, it is necessary to take into account that the higher the mountain, the more horizontals there should be; the steeper the slope, the closer to one another the horizontals should be located. Elevation marks are signed in black and only those that are mentioned in combat documents.

Local objects that have the significance of landmarks, for the display of which conventional signs are not provided (stumps, broken trees, communication line supports, power transmission lines, road signs, etc.), are crossed out in the diagrams in perspective, that is, as they look in real life .

Out-of-scale symbols, as well as symbols of vegetation cover, are crossed out so that their vertical axis is perpendicular to the upper cut of the sheet.

If there is time, the main symbols are shaded for clarity: the right lines of the symbols of settlements, forests, bushes, the left and upper coastlines of rivers and lakes are thickened.

Signatures of the names of settlements and elevation marks are placed parallel to the bottom (upper) side of the diagram and are written in upright font, and the signatures of the names of rivers, streams, and lakes are made in italic font, positioned parallel to the symbols of rivers and streams and along the longer axes of the symbols of lakes and lakes. tracts Signatures related to the design of the diagram (document) and explanatory text are also written in italic font.

Drawing up terrain diagrams using a map.

Depending on the purpose, terrain plans are drawn up on a map scale, on a modified (usually enlarged) or approximate scale.

On a map scale, diagrams are made by copying the necessary map elements onto a transparent base (tracing paper, wax, plastic). If there is no transparent base, map elements can be copied onto opaque paper - “against the light”, for example, through the glass of a window.

On a modified scale, the diagram is drawn up as follows. The area that should be depicted on the diagram is outlined on the map in the form of a rectangle. Then a rectangle is built on paper, similar to that outlined on the map, increasing its sides as many times as the scale of the diagram should be larger than the scale of the map. Within the rectangle drawn on paper, an enlarged coordinate grid is constructed that corresponds to the coordinate grid of the map. To do this, using a ruler or compass, determine the distances from the corners of the rectangle to the points of intersection of its sides with the grid lines, plot these points and sign next to them the digital designations of the grid lines passing through them. By connecting the corresponding points, a coordinate grid is obtained.

After this, the necessary elements of the map are transferred onto paper in squares. This is usually done by eye, but you can use a compass or proportional scale. First, you need to mark on the sides of the squares the points of intersection of them with the lines of objects, then, connecting these points, draw linear objects within the squares. After this, using a grid of squares and marked objects, the remaining elements of the map are transferred. For a more accurate transfer of map elements to the diagram, the squares on the map and diagram are divided into an equal number of smaller squares, which are erased after drawing the diagram.

Drawing up terrain maps using eye survey techniques.

Eye survey is a method of topographic survey performed with the help of simple instruments and accessories (tablet, compass and line of sight). Instead of a tablet, you can use a piece of cardboard or plywood, and instead of a target ruler, you can use a pencil or a regular ruler. Shooting is carried out from one or several standing points. Surveying from one standing point is carried out when it is necessary to depict in the drawing a section of terrain located directly around the standing point or in a given sector.

In this case, the shooting is carried out using the circular sighting method, the essence of which is as follows.

The tablet with a sheet of paper attached to it is oriented so that the top future scheme was directed towards the enemy or the unit's actions. Without changing the orientation of the tablet, they fix it on the parapet of the trench, the cab of a car, the side of a combat vehicle, etc. If there is nothing to fix the tablet on, shooting is done by holding it in your hand and orienting it using a compass.

A standing point is placed on the sheet so that the area to be removed fits completely on it. Without losing the orientation of the tablet, apply a ruler (pencil) to the designated standing point and, pointing it at the object to be displayed on the diagram, draw the direction.

At the end of the drawn line, sign the name of the object or mark it with a symbol. This is how the directions to all the most characteristic objects are drawn sequentially. After this, using a rangefinder, binoculars, or by eye, determine the distances to objects and plot them on the scale of the drawing in the corresponding directions. At the obtained points, corresponding objects (landmarks) are drawn with cartographic symbols or in perspective. Using the drawn objects as the main one, all the necessary terrain objects are visually applied and drawn.

The scale of the diagram is usually determined by the distance from the standing point to the most distant object displayed on the diagram.

To determine directions to terrain objects, you can use a compass, which can be used to determine magnetic azimuths from the standing point to the objects. Using the obtained azimuths, directions to certain points relative to the chosen direction are calculated and, using a protractor, plotted on paper.

Surveying from several standing points is carried out when it is necessary to display on the diagram a large area of ​​terrain that is not visible from one point. In this case, the point from which the shooting begins is placed on a sheet of paper arbitrarily, but in such a way that the entire area being photographed is located as symmetrically as possible on the sheet. At this point, the nearest terrain objects are marked on the diagram using a circular sight. Then they draw the direction to the second point from which the shooting will continue, and also draw and sign the directions to the objects that should later be obtained by serifing. After this, they move to the second (subsequent) point. When moving (moving) from one shooting point to another, measure the distance between them in steps or using the speedometer. By plotting this distance on the scale of the drawing in the direction drawn earlier, a new standing point is obtained on the diagram. At this point, the tablet is oriented along the drawn direction to the previous point and the necessary terrain objects are drawn onto the drawing using circular sighting and notches. Some objects are applied by eye relative to previously applied objects.

A program that includes a set of high-quality topographic maps, some of which were created by the Russian General Staff.

Application Soviet military maps includes topographical maps of the world providing continuous coverage around the world at scales of 100K-500K, road, terrain and satellite imagery from Google Maps, as well as a number of open street maps.

A nice feature of the application Soviet military maps for Android is the presence large quantity roads not shown on other maps. It is also worth noting that Soviet maps have lost their relevance for developed countries, since they were created in the 80s and it is advisable to use them only for countries in Africa and Asia. Otherwise, it is recommended to use Google maps and OSM layers.

Download the application Soviet military maps: one of best apps for off-road navigation on your Android.

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Military topography

Military topography is a science that makes it possible to develop methods and means for obtaining information about various terrain in the interests of combat activities.

Purpose of using topography

When using a completely powerful weapon and radio equipment, it is necessary to make precise topographic and geodetic measurements and calculations regarding their approximate direction of further actions, as well as determining the distance of their target. As a rule, such weapons have a considerable distance to hit a target, and therefore require extremely accurate measurement. But success in battle may require the most extreme, yet precise solutions to be applied. measuring technology. But it is also important that each member of the squad has a good eye and can quickly navigate and find a way to measure the distance to the target and other objects.

Simple Measurement Techniques

Simple linear and angular measurements are in demand for reconnaissance and terrain orientation, as well as for initial shooting data. The eye gauge is the most in a simple way for measurement, it is available to every military serviceman and is applicable in any conditions. Also, field binoculars are used for measurements; in the field of view of the binoculars there are two goniometric scales used to measure vertical and horizontal angles. If there are no binoculars, then you can use a regular ruler, but you need to have certain skills. Instead of a ruler, you can use improvised objects such as:

palm

finger

Matchbox

pencil

Also an indispensable assistant is a compass, which helps you navigate in the desired direction of the journey. A card that has many meanings and has several varieties becomes an indispensable assistant.

reference Information

Azimuths and directional angle. Magnetic declination, convergence of meridians and direction correction Selection of landmarks. Target designation from a landmark, in azimuth and range to the target, by pointing the weapon at the target Maintaining the specified (intended) direction of movement and distance. Avoiding Obstacles Compliance with the standard: “Movement along azimuths on foot” Compliance with the standard: “Orientation by map” Compliance with standards for military topography: 1.3, 5-10 Compliance with the standards: “Determination of direction (azimuth on the ground)” and “Measurement of distances (angles) on the ground using binoculars (ruler with millimeter divisions)” Compliance with standards: “Reading a map” Measuring and plotting directional angles on a map. Transition from directional angle to magnetic azimuth and back Measuring distances on a map. Study of a site. Reading a map along the route Measuring angles and distances on the ground Image and reading of local objects on maps: hydrography, vegetation cover and soil, settlements, industrial enterprises and socio-cultural objects, road network and individual local landmarks Study of the tactical properties of the terrain: observation conditions and camouflage properties of the terrain (determining the mutual visibility of points), cross-country conditions, protective properties of the terrain Linear and angular units of measurement Map scales Terrain as an element of the operational combat situation. Determination of the general nature of the area from a map Avoiding obstacles. Finding the way back Familiarization with the map (map assessment), understanding the scale, section height, year of survey and reconnaissance, year of publication, direction correction, digitization of the coordinate grid Determination of azimuths to local objects Determining geographic coordinates and plotting objects on a map using known coordinates Determination on the map of absolute heights and relative elevations of terrain points, ascents and descents, and steepness of slopes Determining directions to the sides of the horizon using a compass, celestial bodies, and signs of local objects Determining the position of objects (points) in polar and bipolar coordinate systems, plotting objects on a map by direction and distance, by two angles or by two distances Determination of rectangular coordinates of points. Drawing points on a map by their coordinates Determination of the sides of the horizon, magnetic azimuths, horizontal angles and compass direction Determining the nature of local objects from images on maps Orientation on the terrain without a map. Determining your location relative to surrounding local objects. Maintaining the direction of movement according to celestial bodies, local objects, given azimuths Orientation on the terrain without a map. The essence of orientation Terrain orientation by azimuths. Magnetic azimuth. Determination of azimuths to local objects Orientation on the terrain using a map (scheme): methods of orienting a map (scheme), the procedure for identifying landmarks, determining your location, comparing the map (scheme) with the terrain Orientation to the terrain using a map for commanders of subordinate units and other persons Orientation on the map. Orientation of the map in directions to the sides of the horizon, to landmarks, along a linear landmark. Landmark recognition Orientation using a gyro-compass. Orienting the map in the car. Exit to destination Basic rules for maintaining a work card. Raising the card. Conventional signs and abbreviations used when maintaining a work map and drawing up other graphic documents. Basic elements of map content. Scale, non-scale and explanatory symbols. Card design. General rules for reading topographic maps Features of terrain orientation in conditions of limited visibility Preparing data for azimuth movement The concept of official graphic documents, their purpose and content Sequence and basic issues of studying and assessing terrain when planning and conducting operational combat operations and performing special tasks Rectangular coordinate grid on topographic maps and its digitization. Additional grid at the junction of coordinate zones