4 which is included in extreme. In a stressful situation, we are capable of miracles. a person is facing mortal danger. The influence of emotions on physiological processes

It has been established that human behavioral reactions in extreme conditions, their temporal characteristics, and in general the psychophysiological capabilities of people are extremely variable values, depending on the characteristics of the nervous system, life experience, professional knowledge, skills, motivation, style of activity.

At present, it is almost impossible to derive an integral form of human behavior in a tense situation. Nevertheless, more and more data is emerging that psychological factors - individual qualities, abilities of a person, his skills, readiness, attitudes, general and special training, his character and temperament - in a complex situation are not summed up arithmetically, but form a certain complex that ultimately realized in either right or wrong action.

In general, an extreme situation is a set of obligations and conditions that have a strong psychological impact on a person.

Behavior style in extreme situations

Behavior in a state of passion.

Affect is characterized by a high degree of emotional experience, which leads to the mobilization of a person’s physical and psychological resources. In practice, there are quite often cases when physically weak people, in a state of strong emotional agitation, commit actions that they could not perform in a calm environment. For example, they inflict a large amount of fatal damage or knock down an oak door with one blow. Another manifestation of affect is partial loss of memory, which does not characterize every affective reaction. In some cases, the subject does not remember the events preceding the affect and the events that occurred during the latter.

Affect is accompanied by excitement of all mental activity. As a result, the person experiences a decrease in control over his behavior. This circumstance leads to the fact that committing a crime in a state of passion entails specific legal consequences.

The Criminal Code does not say anything about the fact that a person in a state of passion has limited ability to realize the nature of his actions or control them. This is not necessary, since strong emotional disturbance is characterized by a limitation of consciousness and will. It is the “narrowing” of the latter that allows us to say that the state of passion has a certain legal significance. “From the position of criminal law, such emotional states of the accused can be recognized as legally significant, which significantly limited his volitional, purposeful behavior.”

Affect has a significant impact on a person’s mental activity, disorganizing it and affecting higher mental functions. Thinking loses flexibility, the quality of thought processes decreases, which makes a person aware only of the immediate goals of his actions, and not the final ones. Attention is entirely concentrated on the source of irritation. That is, due to strong emotional stress, a person’s ability to choose a behavior model is limited. Because of this, there is a sharp decrease in control over actions, which leads to a violation of the expediency, focus and sequence of actions.

A sudden, strong emotional disturbance is preceded by one of the following situations described in the law.

Violence, bullying, grave insult, other illegal or immoral actions (inaction) of the victim. Here, the state of affect is formed under the influence of a one-time and very significant event for the perpetrator. For example: a spouse who suddenly returns from a business trip discovers with his own eyes the fact of adultery.

A long-term psychotraumatic situation arising in connection with the systematic illegal or immoral behavior of the victim. An affective reaction is formed as a result of a long-term “accumulation” of negative emotions, which leads to emotional stress. For the emergence of affect in this case, another fact of illegal or immoral behavior is sufficient.

According to the law, affect arises in connection with certain actions or inactions of the victim. But in practice there are cases when a sudden strong emotional disturbance causes illegal or immoral behavior of several people. Moreover, for the development of an affective reaction, a combination of actions (inaction) of two or more persons is necessary, that is, the behavior of one of them, in isolation from the behavior of the other, might not be the reason for the emergence of affect.

Behavior under stress

Stress is an emotional state that suddenly arises in a person under the influence of an extreme situation associated with a danger to life or an activity that requires great stress. Stress, like affect, is the same strong and short-term emotional experience. Therefore, some psychologists consider stress as a type of affect. But this is far from true, since they have their own distinctive features. Stress, first of all, occurs only in the presence of an extreme situation, while affect can arise for any reason. The second difference is that affect disorganizes the psyche and behavior, while stress not only disorganizes, but also mobilizes the organization’s defenses to overcome an extreme situation.

Stress can have both positive and negative effects on a person. Stress has a positive role, performing a mobilization function, a negative role - having a harmful effect on the nervous system, causing mental disorders and various types of diseases of the body.

Stressful conditions affect people's behavior in different ways. Some, under the influence of stress, show complete helplessness and are unable to withstand the effects of stress, others, on the contrary, are stress-resistant individuals and perform best in moments of danger and in activities that require the exertion of all forces.

Behavior in a state of frustration

A special place in the consideration of stress occupies psychological condition, arising as a result of a real or imaginary obstacle that prevents the achievement of a goal, called frustration.

Defensive reactions to frustration are associated with the appearance of aggressiveness or avoidance of a difficult situation (transferring actions to an imaginary plan), and it is also possible to reduce the complexity of behavior. Frustration can lead to a number of characterological changes associated with self-doubt or fixation of rigid forms of behavior.

The mechanism of frustration is quite simple: first a stressful situation arises, leading to overstrain of the nervous system, and then this tension is “discharged” into one or another of the most vulnerable systems.

There are positive and negative reactions to frustration.

Level of anxiety in extreme situations

Anxiety is an emotional experience in which a person experiences discomfort from an uncertain outlook.

The evolutionary significance of anxiety lies in the mobilization of the body in extreme situations. A certain level of anxiety is necessary for normal human functioning and productivity.

Normal anxiety helps us adapt to different situations. It increases under conditions of high subjective significance of choice, external threat and lack of information and time.

Pathological anxiety, although it can be provoked by external circumstances, is caused by internal psychological and physiological reasons. It is disproportionate to the real threat or is not related to it, and most importantly, it is not adequate to the significance of the situation and sharply reduces productivity and adaptive capabilities. Clinical manifestations pathological anxiety are varied and can be paroxysmal or constant in nature, manifesting both mental and - even predominantly - somatic symptoms.

Most often, anxiety is viewed as a negative state associated with the experience of stress. The state of anxiety can vary in intensity and change over time as a function of the level of stress to which an individual is exposed, but the experience of anxiety is common to any person in adequate situations.

The reasons that cause anxiety and influence changes in its level are diverse and can lie in all spheres of human life. Conventionally, they are divided into subjective and objective reasons. Subjective reasons include informational reasons associated with incorrect ideas about the outcome of the upcoming event, leading to an overestimation of the subjective significance of the outcome of the upcoming event. Among the objective causes of concern are extreme conditions that pose increased requirements to the human psyche and associated with the uncertainty of the outcome of the situation.

Post-stress anxiety develops after extreme, usually unexpected situations - fires, floods, participation in hostilities, rape, child abduction. Restlessness, irritability, headache, increased quadrigeminal reflex (reaction to a sudden stimulus), sleep disorders and nightmares, including pictures of the experienced situation, feelings of loneliness and mistrust, feelings of inferiority, avoidance of communication and any activities that may remind of what happened are also usually observed. events. If this entire complex develops after a certain latent period after an extreme situation and leads to significant impairments in life, then a diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder is made. Post-stress anxiety is less likely to develop if a person actively acts during an extreme situation.

extreme situation behavior

Lecture 8

While a person is in a familiar environment, he behaves normally. But as soon as a difficult, and even more dangerous, situation arises, the most incredible changes can happen to him. In an extreme situation, psychological stress increases many times over, behavior changes, critical thinking decreases, movement coordination is impaired, perception and attention decrease, emotional reactions change, and much more.

In an extreme situation, in other words, in a situation of real threat, one of three forms of response is possible:

a) a sharp decrease in organization (disorganization) of behavior;

b) sharp inhibition of active actions;

c) increasing the efficiency of actions.

Disorganization of behavior can manifest itself in the unexpected loss of acquired skills that seemed to be brought to automaticity.

Increasing the effectiveness of actions in the event of an extreme situation is expressed in the mobilization of all the resources of the human psyche to overcome it. This is increased self-control, clarity of perception and assessment of what is happening, and the performance of actions and actions that are adequate to the situation. This form of response is the most desirable, but is it always possible for everyone?

In order to make the right decision in an extreme situation, it is necessary, if possible, to understand the situation you find yourself in.

Firstly, in a situation of threat of use of force, first of all it is necessary to determine how real it is, whether it is possible to avoid the onset of undesirable consequences. Assess the location of the threat. If this is your office or living space, then you should take into account that the person threatening you has a much worse understanding of the situation than you: you know where this or that thing is located. But your loved ones may be in the living space, and the threat may, under certain circumstances, turn against them. However, this may be a room in which the owner is the threatening one, and here the initiative is largely on his side.

Another situation is the street. It’s one thing to have a street where there are people, but another thing to have no one around and the possibility of anyone appearing is highly doubtful.

Secondly, the time when the threat of force arises.(day or night) At night, any threat is perceived differently than during the day. The idea that violence occurs mainly at night may work here. And in general, darkness itself can keep many people under increased tension.

Thirdly, the number of people accompanying the threat. It’s one thing if he is alone, completely different if there are several people with him. The nature of the relationship between them can orient you to who is in charge, whether this is the first time they have committed such an act or whether they are acting as a well-coordinated mechanism.

Fourthly, the physical characteristics and equipment of the threat. The nature of your clothing, to a certain extent, may indicate whether the person threatening you was preparing for a meeting with you, and whether it corresponds to his intentions. In loose-fitting clothes, you can easily hide instruments of violence that a person can later use.

When analyzing the situation when they are trying to blackmail you, you should pay special attention to the following points.

Firstly, whether the event that the blackmailer is using actually took place. If what they are trying to threaten you with did not happen, then it is not always worthwhile to immediately notify the blackmailer about it. But sometimes a situation may arise when the event itself took place, but it looked completely different from what is stated in the threat. In this situation, it is necessary to quickly assess whether you can prove what this event actually looked like.

Secondly, how real is the possibility of compromising you if you refuse to comply with the blackmailer’s demands. What might be the consequences for you, and how will they try to achieve this?

Third, Do you have time to neutralize possible negative consequences, is it possible to delay their onset at least a little.

Fourthly, whether the threat affects your loved ones or concerns only you. After all, these are different situations when they blackmail you with harmful consequences for yourself now, or when the threat concerns your loved ones, but in the future.

Fifthly, whether blackmail is carried out by telephone, in writing or in personal contact with the blackmailer.

Persons from whom the threat of attack or blackmail comes can be classified into three large groups:

1) mentally normal people who are in a state where there are no deviations in behavior;

2) mentally normal people who are under the influence of alcohol or drugs;

3) people with pathological abnormalities in the psyche.
If there is a threat of physical attack or it is already being carried out, then first of all it is necessary to orient yourself in the partner’s physical data: height, weight, physique, characteristic features, indicating that he had undergone some kind of special training.

Pay attention to how the person stands. (boxer stance, karateka stance, etc.) A boxer, as a rule, takes an open, but still boxing stance, involuntarily clenches his fists, and often taps the fist of his leading hand into the open palm of the other, as if playing with himself (here you can get visual information about whether he is left-handed or right-handed) . Often in boxers one can observe characteristic changes in the structure of the nose - as a result of repeated injury to the bridge of the nose.

A wrestler usually stands with his shoulders slightly lowered, his arms along his body, they can be half-bent, his fingers seem ready to grab something, his legs are shoulder-width apart or slightly wider. The stance can be perceived as threatening, the movements are smoother than that of a boxer.

A person practicing karate can involuntarily take one of the stances of this type of confrontation, the legs and arms occupy a characteristic position, the fingers are not always clenched into fists, and about if they are compressed, they are much tighter than boxers make them.

As a rule, all these people have a good physique, developed muscles, move well, look at their partner, recording the slightest changes in his behavior.

By the way, it is extremely important to record the external signs of a threatening, attacking, blackmailing person, since it is possible that you will have to enter into relations with law enforcement agencies, and then any little thing noticed can be useful.

If time and conditions allow, it is advisable to pay attention to height, body features, hair color and hairstyle features, eye color, shape of the forehead, nose, lips, chin, ears. Pay attention to what the enemy is wearing, but most importantly, the special signs that distinguish this person.

Special signs include not only moles, scars, tattoos, any physical defects, but also manners of speaking, gestures, voice characteristics, pronunciation, vocabulary and much more, which in the aggregate are characteristic only of this person.

If the person threatening communicated on telephone, pay attention to the nature of the call - local or out of town, how the subscriber introduced himself, immediately spoke about the essence of the matter, without asking who he was talking to, or first clarified who he was talking to.

The characteristics of his speech are fast or slow, intelligibility, the presence of stuttering and accent, clarity and other features of pronunciation. Voice - volume, timbre, hoarse, soft, drunk. Manner of speaking - calm, confident, connected, incoherent, leisurely, hurried, decent", obscene, embittered, emotional, colorless.

The presence of noise accompanying the conversation - another voice that tells the subscriber what to say, silence or loud noise, the sound of transport (train, subway, car, plane), the noise of machines, office cars, phone calls, music, street noise.

When coming into direct contact with a threat, you should also pay attention to the degree of his aggressiveness. Is it aimed specifically on you, which may indicate personal motives, or is it aggressiveness of a general nature, that is, it is directed at you simply as an object over whom violence is entrusted. Try to assess how real the likelihood of violence is or whether they are trying to “scare” you.

It is important to determine the emotional state of the enemy - the nature and speed of his actions, the degree of aggressiveness, the ability to conduct a dialogue with him and evade consequences harmful to you depend on this.

We will describe some emotional states and show how, by external signs, you can determine which emotion (or which) experiences threatening.

Fear- sometimes you may encounter a situation where the person threatening or attacking is afraid. With fear, as a rule, a sharp contraction of muscles occurs, due to which the person experiencing fear becomes stiff in his movements. They are somewhat uncoordinated; the trembling of the hands, especially the tips of the fingers, legs, etc., can be quite clearly recorded. The eyebrows are almost straight, slightly raised, their inner corners are shifted towards each other, and horizontal wrinkles cover the forehead. Eyes sufficiently disclosed The pupils are wide, often dilated, the lower eyelid is tense, and the upper eyelid is slightly raised. The mouth is open, the lips are tense and slightly stretched. The gaze is perceived as moving.

More active sweating occurs, although the temperature indoors or outdoors is comfortable. Sweat can be observed in the following areas: forehead, above and below the lower lip, neck, armpits, palms, back. The man actively wipes away sweat, his face turns pale.

Anger can often be observed with aggressive behavior. It is this emotion that is an indicator of the degree of aggressiveness of the partner. His pose takes on a harvesting character, the man looks as if he is preparing to throw. The muscles are tense, but there is no tremor characteristic of fear. The face is frowned, the gaze may be fixed on the source of anger and express a threat. The nostrils flare, the wings of the nostrils flutter, the lips are pulled back, sometimes so much that they expose clenched teeth. The face turns pale, but often turns red. Sometimes you can notice how convulsions run across the face of a person experiencing anger.

Speech with a hint of threat through clenched teeth. Very rude words, phrases and obscene language may occur. It is typical that in strong anger, even people of non-Russian nationality often use Russian obscene language.

It should be especially noted that when angry a person feels a surge of strength and becomes much more energetic and impulsive. In this state he feels the need for physical action, and the stronger the anger, the greater this need. Self-control is reduced.

Contempt- unlike anger, this emotion rarely causes impulsive behavior, but it is possible that this is why a person demonstrating contempt is in some way more dangerous than an angry person.

Outwardly, it looks something like this: the head is raised up, and even if the person showing contempt is shorter than you, it seems that he is looking from above. You can observe a detached posture and a smug facial expression.

Disgust - a negative emotion that can stimulate aggression. A person who is disgusted looks as if they have put something disgusting in their mouth or feel extremely bad smell. The nose wrinkles, the upper lip is pulled up, sometimes it seems that such a person’s eyes are crossed. As with contempt, a pose of detachment, but without expressed superiority.

Disgust combined with anger can cause very aggressive behavior, since anger motivates an attack, and disgust motivates the need to get rid of something unpleasant.

We will not dwell on the description of such emotions as joy, surprise, grief, shame, since they are not so typical for situations of aggression and attack. But if a person causing pain shows external signs of joy, then this is at least a sign of sadism.

The man is "out of his mind"

Often the threat of attack, the attack itself, or blackmail is carried out by a person under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Alcohol and drugs lead the psyche of the attacker or threat to a state of increased excitability and sharply reduce the level of self-control. That is why sometimes it is important to determine what kind of “doping” and how much the enemy took and what can be expected from him.

The signs of alcohol intoxication are so well known that there is no need to describe them in detail. But it is important to know: the most dangerous are the mild and moderate stages of intoxication, which often cause an increase in aggressiveness. Some people take alcohol for “bravery,” thereby overcoming the feeling of fear, the signs of which can nevertheless be recorded.

When intoxicated, the critical perception of what is happening decreases; such a person has difficulty perceiving or does not perceive any argumentation at all. Movements become more active and can quickly become aggressive. As a rule, a physical attack in such situations is preceded by swearing, swearing, and threats.

A person who is in a state of drug intoxication outwardly looks like almost any normal person, and someone who has never seen people in such a state may not notice this.

Drug intoxication is characterized, as a rule, by increased activity in movements: fast, excessively lively speech, not entirely adequate response to questions, a kind of “glint” in the eyes, sometimes causeless laughter, and a general state of euphoria. In some people in this state, sensitivity to pain decreases, there may be virtually no awareness of responsibility for their actions, and there is no sense of empathy for others. All this is typical for mild drug intoxication, which has a stimulating effect.

In a chronic drug addict, you can see traces of injections and bags under the eyes. It should be borne in mind that the reaction to a drug can be quite short-lived, and the end of its effect in an extreme environment for the drug addict can cause withdrawal, which will result in a sharp deterioration in his condition, he can become depressed, angry, even more agitated and aggressive.

He may have an irresistible desire to remove the obstacle to the next dose of the drug as soon as possible. For some drug addicts, this period of activation lasts a short time, after which a period of severe depression may occur, up to epileptic seizures, when the person becomes practically helpless.

Aggression can come from a person suffering from a mental disorder. Quite conventionally, such people are divided into four groups: patients suffering from paranoid type schizophrenia; patients suffering from manic-depressive psychosis; patients with antisocial behavior; persons with inadequate reactions.

If the person threatening to attack belongs to the first group, then it should be taken into account that such people have practically lost all contact with reality, they often have auditory and visual hallucinations, as well as a manic syndrome, manifested in delusions of grandeur or persecution. With delusions of grandeur, a person considers himself endowed with special qualities, as a result of which he is much “higher” than others. With persecution mania, a person is sure that he is being persecuted for his “special mission”, “special gift”, etc.

A manic person may consider you a “great sinner” from whom he must rid the world. These are people with a fairly developed intellect; it is difficult to deceive them or mislead them. In certain situations they can be quite aggressive.

Persons in the second group are usually in such a deep state of depression that they lose all connection with real world. They often consider themselves unworthy to live, but they are ready to take others with them to another world, since they sincerely believe that they will provide a service by saving them from the horrors of earthly existence.

The patient's speech is extremely slow; it takes him from 15 to 30, and sometimes more, seconds to answer the simplest questions. The movements may resemble a movie in slow motion. He may experience spontaneous “improvements” in his condition, when he suddenly says quite calmly: “Okay, now I know what to do.” Do not rejoice ahead of time; it is better when his condition improves gradually.

The following two groups do not belong to the mentally ill, since they do not lose touch with reality, but they can also be classified as people with mental disorders.

A classic manipulator or swindler is characterized by a complete absence of guilt and remorse. Morals and ethics in the universal understanding are alien to him, which makes it unlikely that he will be able to treat those whom he threatens or whom he physically influences as people. He often strives for physical pleasure, loves to manipulate other people, knows how to “present” himself, and at first can form an opinion of himself as a pleasant person. He is highly impulsive and can seek immediate satisfaction of his demands.

And finally, there are people who, without losing touch with reality, think immaturely, although they may be aware of the consequences of their actions and deeds. Shows an inadequate reaction to stress, feels like a failure in life, a person who is always unlucky. An incident with you is an opportunity to prove something important to someone, and a physical confrontation may be considered one of the thrills by them. He often makes statements like: “I will prove it to them. what am I capable of?

Survival in extreme situations requires a person to have endurance and an unshakable belief that there are no hopeless situations. We have collected 5 stories whose heroes managed to survive in the most difficult conditions.

Long flight and 4 days of struggle

The record height from which a person managed to survive a fall is 10,160 meters. This record is listed in the Guinness Book and belongs to Vesna Vulović, the only survivor of the plane crash on January 26, 1972. She not only recovered, but also wanted to return to work again - she had no fear of flying, because she did not remember the moment of the disaster.

On August 24, 1981, 20-year-old Larisa Savitskaya and her husband were flying from their honeymoon on an An-24 plane from Komsomolsk-on-Amur to Blagoveshchensk. In the sky at an altitude of 5220 meters, the plane in which the newlyweds were flying collided with a Tu-16.

Larisa Savitskaya was the only one of the 38 people who managed to survive. On a piece of aircraft measuring three by four meters, she fell in free fall for 8 minutes. She managed to reach the chair and squeeze into it.

Later, the woman claimed that at that moment she remembered an episode from the Italian film “Miracles Still Happen” where the heroine survives in similar conditions.

Rescue efforts were not very active. Graves have already been dug for all the victims of the plane crash. Larisa Savitskaya was eventually found last. She lived for three days among the wreckage of the plane and the bodies of the dead passengers. Despite numerous injuries - from a concussion to spinal injuries, with broken ribs and a broken arm - Larisa Savitskaya not only survived, but was also able to build herself something like a hut from the wreckage of the fuselage.
When the search plane flew over the crash site, Larisa even waved to the rescuers, but they mistook her for a geologist from a nearby expedition.

Larisa Savitskaya is twice included in the Guinness Book of Records: as a person who survived a fall from a great height, the second time as a person who received the minimum amount of compensation for physical damage in a plane crash - 75 rubles (in 1981 money).

On a small raft

On November 23, 1942, a German submarine torpedoed the English ship Belomond. All members of his crew were killed. Almost all. Sailor Lin Peng managed to survive. He was lucky - during his search on the surface of the water, he discovered a life raft with a supply of food.

Lin Peng, of course, understood that food and water would sooner or later run out, so from the first day of his “Robinsonade” he began preparing equipment for collecting rainwater and catching fish. He stretched out an awning over the raft and made a fishing line from threads of rope found on the raft; from a nail and wires from a flashlight - hooks; made of metal from a tin can - a knife that was used to cut up caught fish. Interesting fact: Lin Peng did not know how to swim, so he was tied to the raft all the time.

Lin Peng caught very little fish, but took care of its safety - he dried it on ropes stretched above the deck of his “ship”. For a hundred days his diet consisted of only fish and water. Sometimes seaweed was found overboard, the consumption of which prevented Lin Peng from contracting scurvy.

The bitter irony of Lin Peng's record-breaking voyage is that he could have been rescued several times. One day they refused to take him on board a cargo ship just because he was Chinese. Then the American Navy noticed him and even threw him a rescue buoy, but a storm broke out and prevented the Americans from completing the rescue mission. In addition, Lin Peng saw several German submarines, but for obvious reasons did not turn to them for help.

It was only in April 1943 that Lin Peng noticed that the color of the water had changed, and birds began to appear in the sky every now and then. He realized that he was in the coastal zone, which meant his chances of success increased many times over. On April 5, he was found by Brazilian fishermen, who immediately took him to the hospital. Surprisingly, Lin Peng was able to move independently after his journey. He lost only 9 kilograms during the forced “Robinsonade”.

Well-read cabin boy

"Robinsonade" is the survival of a person alone for a long time in the natural environment. The record holder in this “discipline” was Jeremy Beebs, who lived on the island for 74 years.

In 1911, the English schooner Beautiful Bliss sank during a hurricane in the South Pacific. Only 14-year-old cabin boy Jeremy Bibs managed to get to the shore and escape on an uninhabited island. The boy was helped by his erudition and love of reading - he knew Daniel Defoe's novel by heart.

Following the example of the hero of his favorite book, Bibs began to keep a wooden calendar, built a hut, learned to hunt, ate fruit and drank coconut milk. While Biebs lived on the island, two world wars occurred in the world, the atomic bomb and the personal computer were created. He didn't know anything about it. We found Biebs by accident. In 1985, the crew of a German ship unexpectedly discovered the record holder among Robinsons, who had already reached the age of 88, and brought him home.

Father's daughter

In the story about Larisa Savitskaya, we recalled the film “Miracles Still Happen.” It is based on real events. On December 24, 1971, a Lockheed L-188 Electra of the Peruvian airline LANSA fell into a vast thunderstorm area, was struck by lightning, entered a turbulence zone and began to disintegrate in the air at an altitude of 3.2 kilometers. He fell into the jungle, 500 kilometers from Lima.

The only survivor was 17-year-old schoolgirl Juliana Margaret Kepke. At the time of the fall, the girl was fastened to a chair. Her collarbone was broken, her right arm was injured, and she was blind in one eye. What helped Juliana survive was that her father was a famous zoologist, who instilled in his daughter the skills to survive in extreme conditions from childhood. Immediately after the crash, having given up trying to find her mother among the bodies of the dead, the girl examined her luggage for food, but found only a few candies - the same result.

Juliana then found a stream not far from the crash site and followed its course. Only nine days later she was lucky enough to go to a boat on the river bank. The girl used gasoline from a canister to treat the wound on her right shoulder, in which at least 40 larvae had already bred.

The owners of the boat, who turned out to be local lumberjacks, appeared only the next day. Juliana was fed, her wounds were treated and she was taken to a hospital in a nearby village.

Alone with the snow

On October 13, 1972, a plane carrying players of the Uruguayan rugby team Old Christians from Montevideo, as well as their relatives and sponsors, crashed in the high Andes region. 27 people survived the fall. Later, another 8 people died due to an avalanche, and three more died from their wounds.

The Uruguayans realized that there was nowhere to wait for help 11 days after the accident, when they said on the radio that their search had been stopped and they were declared dead. The difficult situation in which the passengers found themselves was aggravated by the fact that supplies were running out very quickly. Having miraculously survived the crash, they made a difficult decision - to eat the meat of the dead.

The victims were rescued only 72 days after the disaster. Only thanks to the fact that the group equipped three people on the road who needed to cross the Andes and report what had happened. Two people overcame the most difficult transition. Z

and for 11 days, without equipment or warm clothing, they walked 55 kilometers through the snow-covered Andes and went to a mountain river, where they met a Chilean shepherd, who informed the authorities about the surviving passengers.

Imagine a group of athletes training for a major running competition. In training, they show approximately the same results, their functional capabilities are equal; one wonders why some are doomed to win, while others always lose, even

having higher results shown on control assessments?
When all the runners line up at the preliminary starting line, it is clear that almost everyone is worried and nervous. But at the same time, some turn red, while others turn pale. We know from history that when Julius Caesar selected warriors from among the recruits for his invincible legions, he first tried to properly confuse the man. Fear manifests itself in different people in different ways - in some the facial skin turns pale, while in others, on the contrary, due to the rush of blood to the skin, it turns red. Think and tell me - did Caesar try to get the pale or blushing ones into his army?
This means that there is a huge, fundamental difference between activity under normal conditions (say, in training, in a regular lesson) and the same activity, but at major competitions or at an entrance exam, on the results of which your whole life may depend.
signs such as “complex”, “difficult”, “special”, “critical”, “emergency”, “extraordinary”, “extreme”, “super-ecectremal”, “hyper-stressful”, etc. are called. It turns out that in one case the emphasis is on the characteristics of the objective conditions of activity (complicated conditions), in another on the person’s attitude to the situation that has arisen (“difficult” conditions), in the third the emphasis is on the condition that has arisen in the person (“hyper-stressful” conditions).
The very concept of extreme conditions is defined by some experts as “unfavorable for life,” others as “conditions requiring the mobilization of the body’s emergency capabilities.” It is known that anyone can run fast if there is a growling shepherd dog rushing behind them. Let's remember the story that happened in KiiTae on the eve of the Olympic Games in Tokyo. The police chased one robber and drove him into a dead end from which there was no way out. The street was surrounded on three sides by tall fences.
The police were triumphant - the thief's fate was sealed. But the thief continued to rush forward, increasing his speed
grow; They turned on the siren and the spotlight - this completely frightened the unfortunate man. Having uttered a heartbreaking scream, he took a straight run, with a push of his right leg, soared over a fence 2 m 51 cm high and disappeared. China then needed at least one gold medal at the Olympic Games. It was announced in the newspapers that if this criminal voluntarily came to the stadium in the high jump sector, then everything would be forgiven, and in addition he would be included in the Olympic team and paid a substantial monetary reward. Seven people came to the stadium. The best jumped 2 m 03 cm. This was below the Olympic standard, and just in case, the winner of these “criminal police” competitions was sent to prison.
Or another example that is closer to us. Ivan Alekseevich Bunin, at the age of 52, was vacationing in Switzerland. He lay on the green grass, on the bank of the stream with his feet towards the water and admired the clouds floating across the sky. And suddenly a snake’s head swayed before his eyes. And since childhood, Bunin was terrified of snakes. In horror, he jumped up and jumped over the stream. And the width of the stream was 2 m 94 cm. It is known that Bunin was an intelligent man, short in stature, who had never played sports in his life. I am sure that among the readers of this book there are many “cool” guys. Let them try to jump at least 2 m 50 cm. This means that people under normal conditions use only a small fraction of their potential capabilities. Extreme conditions are needed for a person to demonstrate his true capabilities. But it turns out that not all people are able to improve their results in a critical situation for their life. Some, on the contrary, get lost in a difficult situation and are not able to show even their usual results.
Psychologists know that under the influence of various psychological conditions of activity, the influence of some properties of temperament is weakened and others are strengthened. Thus, performance indicators in training sessions show virtually no connections with any property of temperament. In familiar conditions and a calm environment, each person can show everything he is capable of. But performance at competitions is negatively affected by personality traits such as anxiety and emotional excitability. These properties of temperament in competitions, differently than in training, affect other aspects of activity: the duration of concentration of attention before performing exercises, the level of aspirations, etc. change. In particular, under cipecca conditions, the motives of the same activity cause different degrees of neuropsychic stress in athletes with a strong and weak nervous system. In people with a strong nervous system and high motive activity, as a rule, the level of psychological stress is optimal, and this helps to improve their performance. A classic example of the behavior of the American sprinter and long jumper Jesse Owens at the 1936 Berlin Olympics. Having received gold medal in the long jump, he began preparing for the 200-meter final. The interval between these types is 30 minutes. All athletes are under monstrous nervous tension. And Owens calmly wraps himself in a blanket and calmly goes to bed on the green grass of the stadium. Exactly 20 minutes later he wakes up and begins to confidently warm up. The sight of Owens sleeping on the eve of the most important start of his life had a devastating effect on his main competitors. For Ifflx it was a demonstration of absolute confidence in their victory.
As for athletes with a weak or unstable nervous system, with active motivation they usually experience excessive mental stress, leading to deterioration in performance. I remember how, on the eve of the national athletics championship, I, a young 20 km walker, had an ideological and educational conversation: “Tomorrow morning you have the final. The fate of the entire team fight depends on your successful performance. You have to give it your all and show everything you can do.” As a responsible person, I took the instructions I received very seriously. So, start at 8 am. You need to get up at 5 o'clock and eat well. This means you need to go to bed early to get a good night's sleep. And so I went to bed at 21.00 and could not close my eyes until 5 o’clock in the morning. No matter how much I told myself that I needed to sleep, it was all useless. The great responsibility literally crushed me. At least 20 times during the night I started and fought with imaginary opponents until the end. In the morning, completely exhausted, I was able to crawl out of bed with great difficulty. It is known that under the influence of stressful situations, the call zzzzzzz==rzzz
factors, excitation is stimulated and a dominant is formed with varying degrees of mobility of nervous processes. In a person with a strong nervous system, the dominant is stable and stable, while in athletes with a weak nervous system it is unstable and easily turns into inhibition, accompanied by a deterioration in motor capabilities. A very important role in a person’s behavior in an extreme situation is played by such qualities as temperament, sensitivity (emotional sensitivity and excitability), anxiety and activity in overcoming obstacles. Sensitivity in the broad sense of the word is an indicator of efficiency, adaptation of the individual to stressful or extreme conditions. High sensitivity is a quality opposite to the stability and stability of the mental state. Practice shows that as networking increases, the performance of a person deteriorates, especially in a critical situation (say, important competitions, exams, an unexpected attack by hooligans on the street).
It is known that almost all Olympic champions have reduced sensitivity. Why is that? Imagine that a log 30-50 cm thick lies on the ground. Will you worry, worry, worry, doubt your abilities, turn pale with fear if you are asked to walk on this log? Well, of course not. After all, the log is very wide and this walk does not pose any danger to you. What if the same log is thrown over a deep gorge, along the bottom of which a river roars in a fierce battle with huge boulders? And you will no longer be asked, but will be forced to cross the gorge on this log. Some people might die of fear just thinking about it. Before such a test, a person turns pale, sweats, and his arms and legs shake. And why all? He doesn't just want to cross this log. And he really wants it! And the more he convinces himself that “I must”, “I need to force myself”, “at any cost”, “I must”, “otherwise it’s a shame or death on sharp stones”, the less chance he has for successful completing this task. But you just have to convince yourself that there is no danger, that I have run on this log hundreds of times, that because it was raised to a greater height, it has not become thinner - you will complete the task without much difficulty. The main thing is not to look down at the boiling water and sharp rocks at the bottom

gorges. This means that in order not to be afraid, you need to really look at things, soberly assess the situation (this is not the last exam in life, if it doesn’t work out - I’ll come again, if I don’t win at these competitions - I’ll win at others, in the end both the grade and the sports result - This is not the most important thing in life). Sometimes it’s even useful to downplay the degree of possible danger (so what’s wrong with the fact that a familiar log from childhood was thrown over an abyss, because I ran on it a hundred times while it was lying on the ground). Not by chance the greatest speaker Ancient Rome Cicero uttered a paradoxical thought: “A good speech can only be made in front of a herd of sheep.” Therefore, everyone preparing for public speaking, must treat his audience without excessive Tpeneia and excessive respect, otherwise he will only be able to shake with fear and babble nonsense. You need to look at the audience from top to bottom. Veda, you prepared, you know everything, what to be afraid of. The time has come to enlighten these “rams”. The same applies to people with speech impediments. The more a person thinks about his stuttering, the more he tries to get rid of it, the worse his speech will be. First, I need to be able to relax and convince myself that my speech impediments have no significance for life. After all, an intelligent person is not visible to the eyes. If I could then, many years ago, be able to relax the night before the start, I would have shown a good result.
According to psychological research, individuals who, due to a violation of the regulatory functions of the individual, are not able to cope with a difficult situation, show a tendency to avoid it. In particular, it was found that among people with high self-esteem there are more people who are unstable to stress than among people with adequate self-esteem. An athlete is always afraid of getting physically injured. What a shame it is to strain a tendon on the eve of a competition! But it is equally important to learn to avoid mental trauma. Indeed, in difficult conditions, it is not individual organs or systems of the body that participate in the implementation of activity, but the entire organism as a whole, although any of the systems may be subject to a predominant load. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account that the biological structures of the individual, as the personality develops, are increasingly transformed and, at the level of the developed personality, become subject to it. In a mature and developed personality, the biological functions of the body largely depend on psychological determinants. Psychologists emphasize “the subtle adaptability of the body to various emotional situations; Thus, vegetative, somatic and behavioral reactions during fear are completely different depending on whether the opportunity to avoid danger is real or not.” There is evidence in sports psychology that “biological functions during competitions occur under the strong influence of mental factors.” But mental factors act, firstly, individually, and secondly, selectively. The autonomic nervous system, responsible for the internal functions of the body, is practically uncontrolled by consciousness. Therefore, in people with a strong, balanced and agile - sanguine temperament - in an extreme situation, “lion stress” occurs. It turns out that the more complex the situation, the more optimally, rationally and reliably such an individual acts. Here he is at the start, flushed, with eyes shining with excitement. At this time, a large amount of adrenaline, a hormone that stimulates motor activity, enters his blood. the hormone will help him to give his all and show a higher result than in quiet training work, without a large number of spectators and strict judges. And the louder the roar of the stands, the more confident such an athlete feels. Danger, as it were, spurs such a person, forces him to act. boldly, confidently, decisively. Napoleon wrote about one of his marshals: “Ney had mental insights only among the cannonballs, in the thunder of battle there, his eye, his composure and energy were incomparable, but he did not know how to prepare his operations in the same way; quiet office, studying the map.” But next to our hero stands his friend, who surprised everyone with his high results during training. But something is very pale, he is worried and flinches when shouting from the stands. He also wants to be first and set a record, but he has a weak nervous system and acetylcholine is released in his blood - a hormone with an effect opposite to that of adrenaline. Therefore, under the same extreme situation, a person with a weak nervous system has a completely opposite reaction - “rabbit stress” - disorganization of activity, a sharp drop in its effectiveness, passivity and general inhibition. Moreover, for a particular athlete, “bunny stress” can always

manifest themselves differently. For two false starts, he can simply be removed from the competition, he stumbles and falls, poorly tied shoes with spikes fall off, etc. After an unsuccessful finish, such an unlucky athlete, explaining his defeat, will each time find different reasons: a sudden upset stomach (called “bear sickness” - a direct consequence of stress), an old injury suddenly hurt, he started the distance too quickly and did not have the strength to finish, etc. .d. Other losers in such cases always blame their opponents - they are the ones who are bullied at the start, hit in the liver with an elbow, pushed over the edge, etc. It is interesting that if such incidents happen to a person who is confident in his abilities, then, say, a blow to the liver can only anger him and become a new incentive for a brilliant victory. Therefore, the same property of temperament - for example, anxiety (which is understood as a person’s tendency to exaggerate the physical or social danger of a situation and at the same time experience negative emotional states - fear, anxiety, worry, etc.) does not manifest itself in the same way in different people. This personality trait largely determines the intensity of the anxiety reaction in athletes on the eve of important competitions. But the whole point is that without this very anxiety there is no way to show a higher result in competitions than in training. The anxiety reaction should therefore be considered as a natural process of the body's adaptation to a stressful situation. To a certain extent, the intensity of this reaction is positive, and only excessive anxiety is undesirable and leads to deterioration in performance. Anxiety serves as a trigger mechanism to be active in overcoming external and internal obstacles on the way to achieving the goal. Anxiety and excitability within varying limits contribute to the emergence of a state of mobilization, mental readiness for activity in stressful conditions, and improvement of its effectiveness.
What is important for us is not that people with a strong nervous system (and this is an innate property given to man by God) are capable of high results. These people by nature are destined for the role of winners. It is much more interesting that among very high-class athletes there are people with weakness, imbalance, inertia.
tew nervous processes, overly excitable and mentally unstable. But even such properties of the nervous system and temperament do not prevent them from achieving outstanding success in sports. This is largely facilitated by the formation of an individual style of activity, which is understood as a set of techniques and methods of activity and forms of response, determined by the typological properties of the nervous system, that allow one to achieve success in its implementation. Individual style of activity is one of the significant aspects of self-actualization - something that every person should strive for. The formation of an individual style of activity primarily occurs not through overcoming or correcting the negative aspects of temperament and properties of the nervous system, but through the effective use of their positive aspects for a given activity. Thus, the reliability of an athlete in the extreme conditions of major competitions depends not only on whether he has a strong or weak type of nervous activity, but also on how much control he has over his psyche. After all, almost any person, with proper preparation and training, has the ability to self-regulate at involuntary and voluntary levels immediately before a performance. Involuntary regulation of the pre-launch state is carried out through the implementation of certain programs, automated during the preparation process.
Conscious regulation of the pre-start state is based on the athlete’s developed ability to control its manifestations and causes, purposefully create image-representations, concentrate and switch attention to any objects, distract from the influence of negative psychogenic factors and stimuli, use verbal formulations and special techniques for. effects on muscle condition, autonomic functions and emotional arousal. Conscious regulation of the mental state can help increase the reliability of an athlete only with the daily use of a system of psychoregulatory influences (autogenic, psychoregulatory training).
So, practice shows that under the same conditions different individuals react differently, and these differences relate to both the degree of exposure to influences and the type of observed effects. So, some people note you

high resistance to stress and activity in extreme conditions, while others have low resistance. At the same time, for some, under extreme conditions, the activity improves (sometimes quite significantly, while for others it worsens to the point of failure).
This means that we can talk about two types of states associated with activity in an extreme situation: tension, which has a positive mobilizing effect on activity, and tension, which is characterized by a decrease in the stability of mental and motor functions up to the disintegration of activity.
What does the occurrence of this or that state depend on? Largely from a subjective assessment of the degree of importance, significance of a tago or other event for a particular individual. This can be called an assessment of a potential threat. According to data obtained by psychologists, a threat is a person’s anticipation of the possible negative consequences of the situation affecting him. This assumption was tested in experiments in which subjects were shown the same movie depicting accidents at a sawmill. In the first version of the experiments, subjects were simply told that the film would show accidents at a sawmill; in the second - that events are not real, but are only imitated by actors; finally, in the third case, the experimenters sought to divert the subjects’ attention from difficult episodes in the film: the audience was asked to impartially observe, for example, how clearly and convincingly the master sets out safety rules for workers. Based on the data obtained, it was concluded that in the first case, the majority of viewers experienced clearly expressed stress reactions, in the second, stress did not arise, since the events in the film were considered harmless. As for the third version of the film, if the subjects interpreted these events as dangerous and thus did not take an impartial observer position, then a stressful state arose.
The psychological specificity of states of tension, therefore, depends not on external influences, although they must be strong enough for a person, but also on the personal meaning of the purpose of the activity, assessment of the situation in which he finds himself, etc. To solve the problems arising here, the developed psi

chologists questions about the strength of motives, their hierarchy, the types of such hierarchies, the effectiveness of potential and actual motives, their awareness and unconsciousness, the dependence of the implementation of motives on time, on the distance to the goal, on the intensity of needs, on the adequacy of ways to achieve the goal, age characteristics, etc. .
However, it remains unclear to what extent the patterns established for normal conditions are preserved in difficult situations. Indeed, in situations that create a threat, all motivational processes come into action and the implementation of one of them will depend not only on its strength, place in the hierarchy, etc., but also on various situational factors, the degree of danger, etc. Thus, a person who knows that running away in conditions of physical danger is unworthy of a “real man” may, when attacked by hooligans, flee for his life, because at this moment maintaining health is more important than maintaining a good opinion of himself.
Everyone knows that in difficult conditions in a critical situation, the dynamic side (tempo, energy, intensity) of activity and behavior becomes extremely important, since it directly determines the effectiveness and reliability of a person. This means that the innate dynamic characteristics of the course of mental reactions in extreme conditions have a decisive impact on the final effectiveness of human actions. Of course, the strength of the nervous system plays an important role in the dynamics of mental states. The strength of the nervous system is a physiological prerequisite for human reliability. This factor has always been taken into account in professional selection and career guidance. Therefore, to work as an air traffic controller, pilot (and other professions that require instantaneous making of the right decision in an extreme situation), people with a strong, balanced and mobile nervous system have always been selected. This means that natural characteristics of a person limit a person’s capabilities. It is in a critical situation that their functioning can become decisive and affect the process of activity as a whole. The fact is that there are general and individual limits to the permissible intensities of biological processes, within the framework of which various kinds of biological changes occur, accompanied by the mobilization of the body’s reserves and its adaptation to the influencing stimuli. At-
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approaching these limits or exceeding them leads to various pathological changes, which are sometimes even irreversible.
The question is, can a person, not in extreme, but in the most ordinary conditions, go beyond the limits of his biological capabilities? Many amazing facts that science is not yet able to explain prove that human capabilities are truly limitless. This can only be understood through the unity and interconnection of a person’s natural properties with his properties as a person. And a person, as already mentioned, can be described not only as a biological individual, but also as a limitless field of consciousness that has unlimited experiential access to various aspects of reality without the mediation of the senses. Thus, the newspaper “Komsomolskaya Pravda” (1996, No. 44) wrote about a 56-year-old strongman from the city of Serpukhov - Anatoly Ivanovich Amodumov. Anatoly Ivanovich is short and strong, but not Stallone. If you meet him on the street, you won’t turn around. It lifts 6.5 tons from the ground. It is in principle impossible to explain how he does this, based on data from physiology, anatomy, physics, chemistry and other sciences. The limit of human biological capabilities (meaning a super strongman weighing 150 kg) cannot exceed 1.5 tons.
One day Samodumov came across Vladimir Shaposhnikov’s book “Iron Samson” - about Russian strongmen. After reading it, he was surprised that all the “heroes” stopped at 60 poods (about one thousand three hundred kilograms) in their achievements. “Why not more?” - Anatoly thought and began to solve the riddle, based on his own experience. And I also stopped at this point. When I lifted three hundred tons, it seemed that I could add another couple hundred kilograms. But he added fifty, and the bar seemed to grow into the ground. However, the training continued, and eventually the bar gave way. After this, Samodumov remained in euphoria for a month and a half. “It was an idiotic state,” he recalls. “I was absolutely happy, satisfied with everything, although I understood that from the outside I looked abnormal. When this state passed, I began to realize that in this way you can achieve a lot and get into an area hitherto unknown.”
How does Samodumov himself explain his phenomenal

results? According to him, it’s not about pumped up muscles and monstrous physical strength.
“Besides gravity, there are a lot of other phenomena in the world that we knew nothing about before and which we are just beginning to comprehend,” he says. - For example, there is an internal energy state of every living being or object. It is important to learn how to manage this state of vie. Doctors have found that if a person lifts weights, it has a beneficial effect on him: the body becomes healthier very quickly. When we lift a barbell, all our capabilities are included in the work. The energy capacity of each cell is being rebuilt. Our activities are as natural a need as eating, drinking and sleeping.
The problem with yoga and all martial arts is that... develop some centers in a person, but suppress others. Development is one-sided. We achieve harmony - this is the uniqueness of the methodology. And all our records are just the effect of self-improvement classes.”
Anatoly Ivanovich does not declare his method as a panacea for all diseases. He only cites the facts - the fifty-four-year-old patient had a purely female pathology. Doctors forbade her to carry more than five kilograms, otherwise; - intensive care unit. A very complicated operation was imminent. After six months of training in the section, this woman lifted eight centners, the need for surgery disappeared. Almost all the diseases that I tried to treat using my technique disappeared,” says Samodumov. - " By-effect» - weight loss, rejuvenation and general strengthening of the body. People who work with me stop getting sick. Even a cold, from which it is very difficult to protect yourself, occurs very easily and quickly for them... But do not immediately try to grab heavy weights to get rid of sores. Nothing will work out. It might get worse. Here, as in studies, training is based on the “teacher-student” principle. This is very important, because, according to Anatoly Ivanovich’s shackles, for the first time it is he who “charges a person with energy drawn from the Cosmos.” Without her, all classes are in vain.”
It is curious that Anatoly Ivanovich deals only with girls. He believes that girls are more open, more trusting, and more disciplined. Men question everything, they need to analyze and sort everything into categories, and trust is out of the question. In addition, the stronger sex very easily squanders hard-earned potential.
This means that a person not only in extreme conditions, but also in ordinary ones, when it is necessary to do something beyond the limits of human capabilities, can draw additional energy from an as yet unknown source. The receipt of additional energy can explain not only this, but also many other unusual results. How, for example, can a karateka break 10 concrete blocks stacked one on top of the other with his bare hand? Even if we assume that his bones and muscles are stronger than steel, this is still impossible in principle, since the power of a heavy artillery shell is needed to perform such work. Or, like a karateka extinguishing a candle behind thick glass with a wave of his hand? Moreover, sometimes such phenomenal capabilities manifest themselves in the most ordinary people who find themselves in a critical situation. After all, facts are very stubborn things.
One day, in front of one woman’s eyes, a wall collapsed on her 15-year-old son. The guy was crushed under a very heavy slab. There was no need to wait for salvation, there was no one in sight, and he was doomed. But the fragile woman did not think about the fact that a slab weighing about three tons could only be lifted crane. She thought only about saving her only son and knew that no one else would do this except her. Therefore, she was able to jerk this slab and pull out her son. More well-known examples can be given. Thus, the famous yogi Sri Chen Moi, in front of numerous spectators, lifted a load weighing 2 tons from the mief and above his head. From history, we can recall how 14-year-old American Lulu Hearst in 1885, standing on scales in the circus arena, lifted a chair over her head with a man sitting on it weighing 80 kg. The most surprising thing is that the scales only showed her weight. The weight lifted by an unknown force decreased to 0. Obviously, only under some exceptional conditions does a person acquire such incredible strength and acquire new, previously unprecedented capabilities. Conventionally, psychologists call these phenomena special mental states. These special conditions arise, as a rule, in extreme or, more precisely, borderline situations. These are situations of individual existence in which the individual’s self-awareness is heightened and a person involuntarily recognizes himself. More precisely, he learns something new about his essential strengths and capabilities.

According to K. Jaspers, borderline situations arise exclusively in the face of death, unrequited love or trials with an unpredictable outcome. Borderline situations encourage a person to rely on his essential strengths and serve as an important source of personal self-development. Borderline states do not have a continuous existence; they seem to intersperse into our everyday experience. Being in such a state, a person acts contrary to everything, regardless of common sense and in spite of everything. Many real facts prove the validity of this purely philosophical abstraction: for example, a person rushes to the aid of another, not only risking his life, but often without imagining whether it is even possible to save him. A man defends his dignity and masculine honor, knowing that no one will ever know about it.
Imagine that you are walking along the Voroshilovsky Bridge and before your eyes a five-year-old child hangs over the railing and quickly falls down. How to enter similar situation? All men are divided into two categories: some, without thinking about anything, jump from the bridge into the water, while others, frantically clutching the railing, are intensely thinking about something. But there is something to think about. Does it even make sense to take risks and jump down if the child has already crashed into the water and drowned? What if in this place there are iron piles sticking out of the water or concrete blocks? What if a barge comes in from the other side and I jump right onto the iron deck? Finally, it wouldn’t hurt to take off your expensive leather jacket, etc. and so on. It is clear that after such a comprehensive analysis of the current situation there will be no one to save. But on the other hand, how can a reasonable person commit reckless acts?
Some guy can boast a lot about his “coolness” and courage, but he will never go unarmed against a crowd of twenty people. After all, this is recklessness - the forces are too unequal. But why does the other person (who falls into the “real man” category) never come up with these reasonable arguments, and he, with burning eyes, runs into a crowd of twenty people? Paradoxically, such recklessness often leads to a landslide victory. There is something in the madness of the brave that puts to flight a stronger and more numerous enemy.
Masculinity is always irrational and paradoxical. Sometimes a person realizes that the action he is performing

He is not only dumb, but also senseless, but in principle he cannot do otherwise, he cannot restrain himself. Sometimes the concept of “masculinity” is wrongfully replaced by the concepts of “ideological conviction”, “moral maturity”, “moral choice in an extreme situation”, etc. But this is not entirely true, since moral choice is still controlled by consciousness, as is devotion to any ideas or ideals. And masculinity is not controlled by consciousness, logic and common sense.
In the old film about the joint military operations of Soviet and French pilots "Normandy-Niemen" one real episode is shown. One French pilot had to fly the plane to another airfield. He put a Russian mechanic in the bomb bay without a parachute. But when he took off, the pilot lost control as a result of some kind of accident. A critical situation has arisen when he cannot land the plane, nor can he help the mechanic. He reports this to the ground, and he is ordered to eject. But to do so means to violate the code of a real man (“die yourself, but.” help a comrade”) But in this situation he is not only a man with thoughts and feelings, but also a combat unit that needs to be preserved in order to be used for its intended purpose in the next battle. He is strictly ordered to eject, but he cannot help himself. The internal code of male honor turns out to be higher than orders and even the desire to live. Finally, the mechanic on the internal intercom begs him to jump, but he explodes along with the plane.
What is the reason for such actions, if we discard all considerations of prudence and common sense? But they are not without reason (moreover, a person in such situations assures that he could not have acted differently). To say that the reason for these actions is irrational and existential means to raise the question about the nature of these reasons. Borderline states, therefore, for psychologists are a kind of “window” into a special dimension of human life - into that “existential space”, the laws of which act on a person as inexorably (it is impossible to do otherwise) as physical laws. External reasons for the reckless behavior of a person in a borderline state can be very different - religious fanaticism, political beliefs, patriotism,

just generally accepted “coolness”, but inside the same reason is at work - masculinity. It is the formed masculinity, like a tightly compressed spring (like a constantly cocked trigger), in a critical situation that instantly straightens, pushing out (or rather shooting) a man, throwing him into battle against the whole world. The moment of the “shot” cannot, in principle, be realized and critically comprehended. A person will be burned at the stake, and he, without feeling pain, will enthusiastically shout: “Glorified is the Lord!” Such masculinity has always been “like a bone in the throat” powerful of the world this, accustomed to doing business with obedient loyal subjects. Over the centuries, many have tried to break a courageous man, to force him to change his previous position. But even if a mountain comes at a real knight, he, putting his spear forward, will continue to shout loudly that there is no lady more beautiful and worthy than his beloved.
The Holy Inquisition operated in Europe for 300 years. What did the inquisitive thoughts of “creatively minded” inquisitors wrestle with over the centuries? How to come up with such torment, torture, such a sophisticated method of execution for a person to force him to renounce his previous (heretical) views, change his beliefs and principles. Find a way to confuse a person in such a way as to break his masculinity. Not just to make it very painful, but to split a person’s consciousness like a “rotten nut.” But it turned out that there is no such MjrKH, such torture that a courageous man, convinced that he is right, could not endure. We respect Archpriest Avvakum not for his views (views can be stupid and crazy; just like Dulcinea of ​​the ideal knight Don Quixote, a poser can turn out to be a fat, pockmarked and stupid girl), but for his courage in defending his position.
At the end of the 20th century, it would seem that they found a way to break any person, no matter how courage he possessed. We are talking about a psychotropic weapon, with the help of which specially encoded information, freely passing through the filters of consciousness, invades the subconscious and subjugates a person to someone else’s will. I don’t want to believe in this, because the spread of these weapons can kill the main thing in humanity: masculinity. It seems that this weapon can not subdue, but simply kill a courageous man. Killing is always much easier.
The author believes that true masculinity, as the core of personality, permeates not only the consciousness, but also the subconscious of a person, determining his behavior in almost any situation. I would like to tell you a story that I heard from my late grandfather many years ago. Now it is not possible to verify the authenticity of individual details of this story, but the principle itself is more important. The bottom line is this: in 1942 in Ukraine, the head of one of the regional Gestapo offices was a psychologist by training. Even before the war, in his works he wrote about man as “an animal covered with a thin film of civilization.” And since a person is essentially an animal, then such phenomena as honor, conscience, nobility, courage are all husks, empty words of morality that very quickly fly away from any person, as soon as he puts a few needles under his nails. The main thing is to be able to drive them deeper. In peacetime, he did not have the opportunity to test his views in practice, but during the war such an opportunity presented itself. Only those prisoners who had already proven themselves to be a “tough nut to crack” were selected for the experiment. As a rule, they turned out to be Red commanders, political instructors, former athletes and simply ordinary communists and patriots. The man was put in a sealed leather bag with a weight at his feet and thrown to the bottom of a deep and cold river. The bag was on a long rope, by which it could always be lifted to the surface. And a thin rope was wound around the man’s fist, passing through the neck of the bag to the surface. Imagine yourself sitting in this leather bag for 30 seconds, feel the hopelessness of the situation, feel the cold water pressing on your ears. These seconds pass very quickly, and there remains only one crazy hope to breathe one more time, to live a little longer. Here a weak person can pull the string. The bell will ring and the bag will quickly be pulled to the surface. But our “psychologist’s” attitude was not designed for this primitive animal fear. His was thinner; a vile, as it seemed to him, scientifically based and insidious calculation. After all, when the last breath of air is spent, consciousness turns off. And when consciousness turns off, then all the attitudes developed by consciousness disappear - communist ideas, patriotism, sacred hatred of enemies, religious principles and everything else. What remains? Only animal instincts, and among them the most important is self-preservation. The bet was placed on this short period of time, when consciousness has switched off, but the body itself is still alive and can act. The dying brain sends the last signal, and the hand, against all the person’s previous beliefs, itself pulls the string. The bag containing the semi-conscious person is immediately pulled to the surface.
He immediately receives a glass of schnapps for warmth and for courage, he is dressed in a warm police uniform, given a carbine (without cartridges to begin with) and forced to participate in a mass execution in this uniform in front of everyone. You can also take a photograph of him against the background of a gallows with hanged men and give him this photograph with a dedicatory inscription from the boss himself as a souvenir. An enlightened Gestapo man wanted to put this case on the conveyor belt - you put a political officer in a bag, and you pull out a policeman. But the experiment failed. Out of hundreds of people executed, only 2 or 3 were weak and pulled the rope. But after a while they themselves committed suicide, since they could not walk on their native soil in the role of a traitor. In fact, the experiment did not fail, but confirmed once again that genuine masculinity not only permeates the entire conscious structure of the personality, but also captures the area of ​​the subconscious (and perhaps the area of ​​the unconscious, where masculinity is fixed at the level of archetypes). My grandfather also said that a report was drawn up based on the materials of the experiment and sent to headquarters. Based on this report, appropriate decisions were made. In particular, since the end of 1944, communists were no longer tortured, since a corresponding badge was placed in the personal files of prisoners, indicating that this person was a convinced communist (in the context of the problem under consideration, this meant a real man) and applying torture to him was a waste of time. Therefore, such a person is subject only to immediate destruction.
From everything we can draw one conclusion: true masculinity is not subject to all considerations of prudence and common sense. In the situation of “being a man in the face of death,” a person must throw aside all the arguments generated by modern life and act in accordance with some ancient motivational programs. It was these ancient programs that constantly pushed

men (even against their will) at the forefront of the evolutionary process.
Let's imagine that the people who suffocated in the bag somehow remained alive. How would the experienced existential state affect their personality? Would they come out of the bag the same or would there be some kind of transformation?
Practice shows that experiencing borderline states leads to a “conversion” of the individual. The person himself begins to feel different, changed. Something is revealed to him that does not allow him to lead the same way of life; he really thinks, feels and understands differently. The basic reasons for a person’s basic actions become the state discovered and experienced by him in existential experience, and not the usual motives determined by the environment. This means that the existential state experienced by a person (the reasons for which are usually hidden from us) itself becomes the cause of subsequent events.
It is important to emphasize that the influence of the social on biological processes in states of tension is carried out primarily through mental, in particular motivational and emotional components of activity, their specific content. Along with the examples just given, this can also be confirmed by works in the field of prevention and overcoming the negative effects of mental tension, which show the possibility of conscious regulation of certain vegetative processes, which leads to increased functionality physiological systems disabled person, their compensation and increasing, on this basis, resistance to stimulation. Moreover, we can say that under certain conditions a person can restrain the manifestations of his bodily being at their greatest tension, as if suppressing them and to a certain extent go beyond the limits of biological laws.
This means that the effect of a stressor is not limited only to its specific action, but is also determined by the psychological characteristics of a person. Thus, immediate danger to life, severe pain, which are recognized as effective stressors, may not be so in connection with the performance of a certain role or, for example, in connection with religious or ideological motives. Psychology of race
11. The burning school believes that there is a large number of studies indicating this. that the motivational, intellectual and other psychological characteristics of a person, his life experience, amount of knowledge, etc. significantly correct the influence of the objective properties of the stimulus. For example, in studies of the mental states of paratroopers, it has been repeatedly shown that the degree of fear before a jump is positively correlated with a lack of self-confidence and lack of experience, in particular the ability to fight against the wind during a jump.
Even more striking confirmation is the data obtained by American psychologists. The study was conducted on recruited soldiers. Situations of a “crash” and forced landing of an aircraft were simulated. The subjects were in a twin-engine military aircraft DS-Z. Each of the passengers had a connection via headphones to the cockpit.
Before boarding, each participant in the experiment was given a brochure with instructions for 10 minutes to study - a list of necessary actions in the event of a possible disaster. In addition, as required by the regulations of the Air Force, each participant in the flight, under the control of the aircraft commander, put on a life belt and a parachute. Somewhere at an altitude of 5,000 feet, the plane, gaining altitude, began to roll. All subjects saw that one of the propellers had stopped rotating, and through headphones they learned about other problems. They were then told directly that a critical situation had arisen. The subjects, as if by chance, hear through headphones an alarming conversation between the pilot and a ground observation post, which leaves no doubt about the reality of the situation. Since the plane was flying near the airfield, the subjects could see trucks and ambulances arriving on the runway, i.e. that on the ground they clearly suspect a crash and are preparing to provide assistance. A few minutes later there was an order to prepare for splashdown in the open ocean due to the failure of the landing gear. After some time, the plane landed safely at the airfield. In general, the experimental situation was perceived as real, strong emotional experiences were observed associated with the fear of death or injury (“numb with horror”), etc. However, some of the subjects did not notice these phenomena: some of them had extensive flying experience and were able to determine the simulated nature of the danger, while others were confident in their ability to survive the “impending catastrophe” and overcome it.
This gives reason to believe that the main role in the emergence of a threat, it is not so much the objective danger and objective opportunities to resist this danger that belongs, but rather the way a person perceives the situation, assesses his capabilities, i.e. subjective factor. If a person believes in himself, in his capabilities, he can handle the most difficult and extreme situations.

According to rescue services from different countries, about 80% of people in moments of danger fall into a stupor, 10% begin to panic, and only the remaining 10% quickly pull themselves together and act to save themselves. See how a clear understanding of the situation and self-control help a person survive in any, even the wildest conditions.

A 17-year-old girl was one of the passengers on a plane that flew over the Peruvian jungle in 1971. The plane was hit by lightning and it fell apart in the air. Only 15 of the 92 passengers managed to survive the fall, but all except Julian were seriously injured and died before help arrived. She was the only one lucky - the tree crowns softened the blow, and, despite a broken collarbone and torn ligaments in her knee, the girl, fastened to the seat and who fell with him, remained alive. Juliane wandered through the thickets for 9 days, and she managed to reach the river along which a group of local hunters was sailing. They fed her, provided first aid and took her to the hospital. All the time she spent in the jungle, the girl was inspired by the example of her father, who was an experienced extreme sportsman and walked the path from Recife (Brazil) to Lima, the capital of Peru.

A British couple spent 117 days on the open ocean in 1973. The couple went on a trip on their yacht, and for several months everything was fine, but off the coast of New Zealand, the ship was attacked by a whale. The yacht received a hole and began to sink, but Maurice and Marilyn managed to escape on an inflatable raft, taking documents, canned food, a water container, knives and a few other necessary things that came to hand. The food ran out very quickly, and the couple ate plankton and raw fish - they caught it with homemade pin hooks. Almost four months later, they were picked up by North Korean fishermen - by that time both husband and wife were almost completely exhausted, so rescue came at the last minute. The Baileys traveled more than 2,000 km on their raft.

An 11-year-old boy showed an amazing example of endurance and self-control in an extreme situation. The light-engine plane, in which Norman's father and his girlfriend, the pilot, and Norman himself were, crashed into a mountain at an altitude of 2.6 km and crashed. The father and pilot died on the spot, the girl tried to go down the glacier and fell down. Fortunately, Ollestad Sr. was an experienced extreme sportsman and taught his son survival skills. Norman built some kind of skis found in the mountains and went down safely - it took about 9 hours. As an adult and writer, Norman Ollestad recounted the incident in his book Crazy for the Storm, which became a bestseller.

A traveler from Israel and his friend Kevin were rafting in Bolivia, and they washed up at a waterfall. Both survived the fall, but Kevin almost immediately managed to get ashore, and Yossi was carried down the river. As a result, the 21-year-old guy found himself alone in a wild forest far from civilization. One day he was attacked by a jaguar, but with the help of a torch the young man managed to drive away the beast. Yossi ate berries, bird eggs, and snails. At this time, a rescue group was looking for him, which Kevin assembled immediately after the incident - after 19 days the search was crowned with success. One of the stories on the popular Discovery Channel program “I Shouldn’t Have Survived” was dedicated to this incident.

In 1994, a police officer from Italy decided to take part in the Marathon des Sables, a six-day, 250-kilometer race in the Sahara Desert. Caught in a severe sandstorm, he lost direction and ended up getting lost. 39-year-old Mauro did not lose heart, but continued to move - he drank his own urine, and ate snakes and plants that he managed to find in the bed of a dry river. One day Mauro came across an abandoned Muslim shrine where there were bats - he began to catch them and drink their blood. After 5 days he was discovered by a family of nomads. As a result, Mauro Prosperi walked 300 km in 9 days, losing 18 kg during the journey.

The Australian lost almost half of his weight during forced wanderings through the deserts of the northern part of the continent. His car broke down, and he set off on foot to the nearest town, but did not know how far away or in what direction it was. He walked day after day, feeding on grasshoppers, frogs and leeches. Then Ricky built himself a shelter from branches and began to wait for help. Luckily for Ricky, it was the rainy season, so he didn't have too much trouble drinking water. As a result, he was discovered by people from one of the cattle farms located in that area. They described him as a "walking skeleton" - before his adventure, Ricky weighed just over 100kg, and when he was sent to hospital, where he spent six days, his body weight was 48kg.

Two 34-year-old Frenchmen survived for seven weeks in the deepest part of Guiana in 2007, eating frogs, centipedes, turtles and tarantula spiders. The friends, lost in the forest, spent the first three weeks in place, building a shelter - they hoped that they would be found, but then they realized that the dense crowns of trees would not allow them to be seen from the air. Then the guys hit the road in search of the nearest housing. At the end of the journey, when, according to their calculations, there were no more than two days left to go, Gilem became very ill, and Luke went alone to bring help as quickly as possible. Indeed, he soon reached civilization and, together with the rescuers, returned to his partner - the adventure ended happily for both.

A tourist from France survived a fall from a height of about 20 meters, and then spent 11 days in the mountains in north-eastern Spain. A 62-year-old woman fell behind the group and got lost. She tried to go down, but fell into the ravine. She couldn't get out of there, so she had to spend almost two weeks in the wild waiting for help - she ate leaves and drank rainwater. On the 11th day, rescuers spotted a red T-shirt from a helicopter that Teresa had spread on the ground and rescued her.

A 29-year-old ship's cook from Nigeria spent almost three days underwater on a sunken ship. The tug was caught in a storm 30 kilometers from the coast, received severe damage and quickly sank - at that time Okene was in the hold. He groped his way through the compartments and discovered a so-called air bag - a “pocket” that was not filled with water. Harrison was wearing only shorts and was chest-deep in water - he was cold, but he could breathe, and that was the main thing. Harrison Okene prayed every second - the day before his wife sent him the text of one of the psalms via SMS, which he repeated to himself. There was not much oxygen in the air bag, but it was enough until the rescuers arrived, who could not reach the ship immediately due to the storm. The remaining 11 crew members were killed - Harrison Okene was the only survivor.

A 72-year-old Arizona woman survived in the wild for 9 days. An elderly woman went to visit her grandchildren on March 31, 2016. hybrid car, but it ran out of charge when she drove through completely deserted areas. Her phone had no network coverage, so she decided to climb higher to call the emergency services, but ended up getting lost. A dog and a cat were traveling with Ann - on April 3, the police, who were already searching, found a car and a cat sitting in it. On April 9, a dog was found along with the inscription “Help” lined with stones. Under one of them was a note from Anne dated April 3rd. On the same day, rescuers first found a makeshift shelter, and a little later, Ann herself.

It has been established that human behavioral reactions in extreme conditions, their temporal characteristics, and in general the psychophysiological capabilities of people are extremely variable values, depending on the characteristics of the nervous system, life experience, professional knowledge, skills, motivation, and style of activity.

At present, it is almost impossible to derive an integral form of human behavior in a tense situation. Nevertheless, more and more data is emerging that psychological factors - individual qualities, abilities of a person, his skills, readiness, attitudes, general and special training, his character and temperament - in a complex situation are not summed up arithmetically, but form a certain complex that ultimately realized in either right or wrong action.

In general, an extreme situation is a set of obligations and conditions that have a strong psychological impact on a person.

Behavior style in extreme situations

Behavior in a state of passion.

Affect is characterized by a high degree of emotional experience, which leads to the mobilization of a person’s physical and psychological resources. In practice, there are quite often cases when physically weak people, in a state of strong emotional agitation, commit actions that they could not perform in a calm environment. For example, they inflict a large amount of fatal damage or knock down an oak door with one blow. Another manifestation of affect is partial loss of memory, which does not characterize every affective reaction. In some cases, the subject does not remember the events preceding the affect and the events that occurred during the latter.

Affect is accompanied by excitement of all mental activity. As a result, the person experiences a decrease in control over his behavior. This circumstance leads to the fact that committing a crime in a state of passion entails specific legal consequences.

The Criminal Code does not say anything about the fact that a person in a state of passion has limited ability to realize the nature of his actions or control them. This is not necessary, since strong emotional disturbance is characterized by a limitation of consciousness and will. It is the “narrowing” of the latter that allows us to say that the state of passion has a certain legal significance. “From the position of criminal law, such emotional states of the accused can be recognized as legally significant, which significantly limited his volitional, purposeful behavior.”

Affect has a significant impact on a person’s mental activity, disorganizing it and affecting higher mental functions. Thinking loses flexibility, the quality of thought processes decreases, which makes a person aware only of the immediate goals of his actions, and not the final ones. Attention is entirely concentrated on the source of irritation. That is, due to strong emotional stress, a person’s ability to choose a behavior model is limited. Because of this, there is a sharp decrease in control over actions, which leads to a violation of the expediency, focus and sequence of actions.

A sudden, strong emotional disturbance is preceded by one of the following situations described in the law.

Violence, bullying, grave insult, other illegal or immoral actions (inaction) of the victim. Here, the state of affect is formed under the influence of a one-time and very significant event for the perpetrator. For example: a spouse who suddenly returns from a business trip discovers with his own eyes the fact of adultery.

A long-term psychotraumatic situation arising in connection with the systematic illegal or immoral behavior of the victim. An affective reaction is formed as a result of a long-term “accumulation” of negative emotions, which leads to emotional stress. For the emergence of affect in this case, another fact of illegal or immoral behavior is sufficient.

According to the law, affect arises in connection with certain actions or inactions of the victim. But in practice there are cases when a sudden strong emotional disturbance causes illegal or immoral behavior of several people. Moreover, for the development of an affective reaction, a combination of actions (inaction) of two or more persons is necessary, that is, the behavior of one of them, in isolation from the behavior of the other, might not be the reason for the emergence of affect.

Behavior under stress

Stress is an emotional state that suddenly arises in a person under the influence of an extreme situation associated with a danger to life or an activity that requires great stress. Stress, like affect, is the same strong and short-term emotional experience. Therefore, some psychologists consider stress as a type of affect. But this is far from true, since they have their own distinctive features. Stress, first of all, occurs only in the presence of an extreme situation, while affect can arise for any reason. The second difference is that affect disorganizes the psyche and behavior, while stress not only disorganizes, but also mobilizes the organization’s defenses to overcome an extreme situation.

Stress can have both positive and negative effects on a person. Stress has a positive role, performing a mobilization function, and a negative role - having a harmful effect on the nervous system, causing mental disorders and various kinds of diseases of the body.

Stressful conditions affect people's behavior in different ways. Some, under the influence of stress, show complete helplessness and are unable to withstand the effects of stress, others, on the contrary, are stress-resistant individuals and perform best in moments of danger and in activities that require the exertion of all forces.

Behavior in a state of frustration

A special place in the consideration of stress is occupied by a psychological state that arises as a result of a real or imaginary obstacle that prevents the achievement of a goal, called frustration.

Defensive reactions to frustration are associated with the appearance of aggressiveness or avoidance of a difficult situation (transferring actions to an imaginary plan), and it is also possible to reduce the complexity of behavior. Frustration can lead to a number of characterological changes associated with self-doubt or fixation of rigid forms of behavior.

The mechanism of frustration is quite simple: first a stressful situation arises, leading to overstrain of the nervous system, and then this tension is “discharged” into one or another of the most vulnerable systems.

There are positive and negative reactions to frustration.

Level of anxiety in extreme situations

Anxiety is an emotional experience in which a person experiences discomfort from an uncertain outlook.

The evolutionary significance of anxiety lies in the mobilization of the body in extreme situations. A certain level of anxiety is necessary for normal human functioning and productivity.

Normal anxiety helps us adapt to different situations. It increases under conditions of high subjective significance of choice, external threat and lack of information and time.

Pathological anxiety, although it can be provoked by external circumstances, is due to internal psychological and physiological reasons. It is disproportionate to the real threat or is not related to it, and most importantly, it is not adequate to the significance of the situation and sharply reduces productivity and adaptive capabilities. Clinical manifestations of pathological anxiety are varied and can be paroxysmal or permanent, manifesting both mental and, even predominantly, somatic symptoms.

Most often, anxiety is viewed as a negative state associated with the experience of stress. The state of anxiety can vary in intensity and change over time as a function of the level of stress to which an individual is exposed, but the experience of anxiety is common to any person in adequate situations.

The reasons that cause anxiety and influence changes in its level are diverse and can lie in all spheres of human life. Conventionally, they are divided into subjective and objective reasons. Subjective reasons include informational reasons associated with incorrect ideas about the outcome of the upcoming event, leading to an overestimation of the subjective significance of the outcome of the upcoming event. Among the objective reasons that cause anxiety are extreme conditions that place increased demands on the human psyche and are associated with the uncertainty of the outcome of the situation.

Post-stress anxiety develops after extreme, usually unexpected situations - fires, floods, participation in hostilities, rape, child abduction. Restlessness, irritability, headache, increased quadrigeminal reflex (reaction to a sudden stimulus), sleep disorders and nightmares, including pictures of the experienced situation, feelings of loneliness and mistrust, feelings of inferiority, avoidance of communication and any activities that may remind of what happened are also usually observed. events. If this entire complex develops after a certain latent period after an extreme situation and leads to significant impairments in life, then a diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder is made. Post-stress anxiety is less likely to develop if a person actively acts during an extreme situation.

extreme situation behavior

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FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

State educational institution higher professional education

"SOUTH URAL STATE UNIVERSITY"

Faculty of Physical Culture and Sports

Department of “Theory and Methods of Physical Culture and Sports”

Specialty "Pedagogical Education"

EXPLANATORY NOTE FOR THE COURSE WORK

in the discipline "Psychology"

SUSU-050100.2012.100 PZ KR

Human behavior in an extreme situation

annotation

Zemlyantseva V.V., Human behavior in extreme situations - Chelyabinsk: SUSU

FKiS-186, 2013

The course work is devoted to the study of human behavior in extreme conditions, it presents the characteristics of human behavior. The physiology of human behavior in extreme situations at different stages of human development has been studied. Given various methods behavioral studies and conclusions were drawn over the predominance of people in the study group. The development of human behavior and development conditions are presented. Recommended for pedagogical specialties.

Introduction

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The psychology of extreme situations is one of the areas of applied psychology. It explores problems associated with assessing, predicting and optimizing human mental states and behavior in stressful situations.

In complex activities, tense situations may arise - circumstances that create significant difficulties and at the same time require a person to act quickly, accurately and without errors. The effectiveness of the actions of an individual, a team, or a leader in a tense situation is largely determined by the high level of their readiness for them.

Relevance of the chosen topic. The problem of the state, behavior and activities of people in extreme situations has in recent years been of serious concern to scientists and practitioners around the world. It should probably be recognized that, despite a significant amount of sufficiently substantiated data on the impact of various extreme factors and the peculiarities of the organization of rescue and anti-terrorist operations, a number of aspects of the problem, in particular, the dynamics of the condition and behavior of victims and hostages are still among the least studied. At the same time, it is the specificity of the reactions of victims, as well as their dynamics over time, that largely determine the strategy and tactics of anti-terrorist operations, rescue, medical and medical-psychological measures, both directly during an emergency and subsequently.

1. The concept of an extreme situation

One of the successful attempts to build full classification situations was undertaken by A.M. Stolyarenko. He divides situations into normal, paraextreme, extreme and hyperextreme (depending on the required activity and the positivity of the result achieved).

According to A.M. Stolyarenko, normal (ordinary) situations include those situations that do not create difficulties or any dangers for a person, but require ordinary activity from him. They usually end positively. Paraextreme situations cause strong internal tension, they can lead a person to failure. Extreme situations are characterized by the occurrence of extreme stress and overvoltage in a person. They pose great objective and psychological tasks to the individual. If they occur, the probability of success sharply decreases and the risk of negative consequences increases.

Hyper-extreme situations place demands on a person that exceed his abilities. They lead to a significant increase in internal tension, disturbances in normal behavior and activity.

An extreme situation is a complication of operating conditions that has acquired special significance for the individual and the team. In other words, complex objective conditions of activity become a tense situation when they are perceived, understood, assessed by people as difficult, dangerous, etc.

Researchers unanimously note: regardless of the duration of an extreme event, its consequences are destructive for the individual. At the same time, the clinical picture is not strictly individual in nature, but comes down to a small number of fairly typical manifestations, very reminiscent of the initial symptoms of somatic and sometimes mental illnesses.

2. The influence of an extreme situation on a person’s mental and psychophysiological state

A person’s perception of a situation and assessment of the degree of its difficulty and extremeness are also influenced by the following factors: the degree of positive self-esteem, self-confidence, the level of subjective control, the presence of positive thinking, the severity of motivation to achieve success, and others. The behavior of an individual in a situation is determined by the characteristics of a person’s temperament (anxiety, rate of reaction, etc.) and his character (the severity of certain accentuations).

Let us distinguish 6 successive stages in the dynamics of the condition of victims (without severe injuries):

1. “Vital reactions” - lasting from several seconds to 5 - 15 minutes, when behavior is almost completely subordinated to the imperative of preserving one’s own life, with a characteristic narrowing of consciousness, a reduction of moral norms and restrictions, disturbances in the perception of time intervals and the strength of external and internal stimuli . This period is characterized by the implementation of predominantly instinctive forms of behavior, which subsequently transform into a short-term (nevertheless with very wide variability) state of numbness.

2. “The stage of acute psycho-emotional shock with phenomena of overmobilization.” This stage, as a rule, developed following a short-term state of numbness, lasted from 3 to 5 hours and was characterized by general mental stress, extreme mobilization of psychophysiological reserves, heightened perception and increased speed of thought processes, manifestations of reckless courage (especially when saving loved ones) with a simultaneous decrease critical assessment of the situation, but maintaining the ability to perform purposeful activities. The emotional state during this period was dominated by a feeling of despair, accompanied by feelings of dizziness and headache, as well as palpitations, dry mouth, thirst and difficulty breathing. Behavior during this period is subordinated almost exclusively to the imperative of saving loved ones with the subsequent implementation of ideas about morality, professional and official duty. Despite the presence of rational components, it is during this period that panic reactions are most likely to manifest and infect others with them, which can significantly complicate rescue operations.

3. “Stage of psychophysiological demobilization” - its duration is up to three days. In the vast majority of cases, the onset of this stage was associated with an understanding of the scale of the tragedy (“stress of awareness”) and contacts with those seriously injured and the bodies of the dead, as well as the arrival of rescue and medical teams. The most characteristic of this period were a sharp deterioration in well-being and psycho-emotional state with a predominance of a feeling of confusion (up to a state of a kind of prostration), individual panic reactions (often of an irrational nature, but realized without any energy potential), a decrease in the moral normativity of behavior, refusal of any activity and motivation for it. At the same time, pronounced depressive tendencies and dysfunction of attention and memory were observed.

4. Following the “psychophysiological demobilization” (with relatively high individual variability in terms), the development of the 4th stage - the “resolution stage” (from 3 to 12 days) was observed with sufficient consistency. During this period, according to subjective assessment, mood and well-being gradually stabilized. However, according to the results of objective data and participant observation, the vast majority of those examined retained a reduced emotional background, limited contact with others, hypomimia (mask-like appearance), decreased intonation coloring of speech, slowness of movements, sleep and appetite disturbances, as well as various psychosomatic reactions (mainly from the of cardio-vascular system, gastrointestinal tract and hormonal sphere). By the end of this period, the majority of victims had a desire to “speak out,” which was implemented selectively, aimed primarily at persons who were not eyewitnesses of the tragic events, and was accompanied by some agitation. Against the background of subjective signs of some improvement in the condition, a further decrease in psychophysiological reserves (by the type of hyperactivation) was objectively noted, the phenomena of overwork progressively increased, and indicators of physical and mental performance decreased significantly.

5. The “restoration stage” of the psychophysiological state (5th) began mainly at the end of the second week after exposure to the extreme factor and was initially most clearly manifested in behavioral reactions: interpersonal communication intensified, the emotional coloring of speech and facial reactions began to normalize, jokes appeared for the first time, causing emotional response from others, dreams were restored in the majority of those examined.

6. At a later date (a month later), 12% - 22% of the victims showed persistent sleep disturbances, unmotivated fears, recurring nightmares, obsessions, delusional-hallucinatory states and some others, and signs of astheno-neurotic reactions in combination with psychosomatic disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, cardiovascular and endocrine systems were determined in 75% of victims (“stage of delayed reactions”). At the same time, internal and external conflict potential increased, requiring special approaches.

3. Features of behavior in extreme situations

It has been established that human behavioral reactions in extreme conditions, their temporal characteristics, and in general the psychophysiological capabilities of people are extremely variable values, depending on the characteristics of the nervous system, life experience, professional knowledge, skills, motivation, and style of activity.

At present, it is almost impossible to derive an integral form of human behavior in a tense situation. Nevertheless, more and more data is emerging that psychological factors - individual qualities, abilities of a person, his skills, readiness, attitudes, general and special training, his character and temperament - in a complex situation are not summed up arithmetically, but form a certain complex that ultimately realized in either right or wrong action.

In general, an extreme situation is a set of obligations and conditions that have a strong psychological impact on a person.

Behavior style in extreme situations

Behavior in a state of passion.

Affect is characterized by a high degree of emotional experience, which leads to the mobilization of a person’s physical and psychological resources. In practice, there are quite often cases when physically weak people, in a state of strong emotional agitation, commit actions that they could not perform in a calm environment. For example, they inflict a large amount of fatal damage or knock down an oak door with one blow. Another manifestation of affect is partial loss of memory, which does not characterize every affective reaction. In some cases, the subject does not remember the events preceding the affect and the events that occurred during the latter.

Affect is accompanied by excitement of all mental activity. As a result, the person experiences a decrease in control over his behavior. This circumstance leads to the fact that committing a crime in a state of passion entails specific legal consequences.

The Criminal Code does not say anything about the fact that a person in a state of passion has limited ability to realize the nature of his actions or control them. This is not necessary, since strong emotional disturbance is characterized by a limitation of consciousness and will. It is the “narrowing” of the latter that allows us to say that the state of passion has a certain legal significance. “From the position of criminal law, such emotional states of the accused can be recognized as legally significant, which significantly limited his volitional, purposeful behavior.”

Affect has a significant impact on a person’s mental activity, disorganizing it and affecting higher mental functions. Thinking loses flexibility, the quality of thought processes decreases, which makes a person aware only of the immediate goals of his actions, and not the final ones. Attention is entirely concentrated on the source of irritation. That is, due to strong emotional stress, a person’s ability to choose a behavior model is limited. Because of this, there is a sharp decrease in control over actions, which leads to a violation of the expediency, focus and sequence of actions.

A sudden, strong emotional disturbance is preceded by one of the following situations described in the law.

Violence, bullying, grave insult, other illegal or immoral actions (inaction) of the victim. Here, the state of affect is formed under the influence of a one-time and very significant event for the perpetrator. For example: a spouse who suddenly returns from a business trip discovers with his own eyes the fact of adultery.

A long-term psychotraumatic situation arising in connection with the systematic illegal or immoral behavior of the victim. An affective reaction is formed as a result of a long-term “accumulation” of negative emotions, which leads to emotional stress. For the emergence of affect in this case, another fact of illegal or immoral behavior is sufficient.

According to the law, affect arises in connection with certain actions or inactions of the victim. But in practice there are cases when a sudden strong emotional disturbance causes illegal or immoral behavior of several people. Moreover, for the development of an affective reaction, a combination of actions (inaction) of two or more persons is necessary, that is, the behavior of one of them, in isolation from the behavior of the other, might not be the reason for the emergence of affect.

Behavior under stress

Stress is an emotional state that suddenly arises in a person under the influence of an extreme situation associated with a danger to life or an activity that requires great stress. Stress, like affect, is the same strong and short-term emotional experience. Therefore, some psychologists consider stress as a type of affect. But this is far from true, since they have their own distinctive features. Stress, first of all, occurs only in the presence of an extreme situation, while affect can arise for any reason. The second difference is that affect disorganizes the psyche and behavior, while stress not only disorganizes, but also mobilizes the organization’s defenses to overcome an extreme situation.

Stress can have both positive and negative effects on a person. Stress has a positive role, performing a mobilization function, and a negative role - having a harmful effect on the nervous system, causing mental disorders and various kinds of diseases of the body.

Stressful conditions affect people's behavior in different ways. Some, under the influence of stress, show complete helplessness and are unable to withstand the effects of stress, others, on the contrary, are stress-resistant individuals and perform best in moments of danger and in activities that require the exertion of all forces.

Behavior in a state of frustration

A special place in the consideration of stress is occupied by a psychological state that arises as a result of a real or imaginary obstacle that prevents the achievement of a goal, called frustration.

Defensive reactions to frustration are associated with the appearance of aggressiveness or avoidance of a difficult situation (transferring actions to an imaginary plan), and it is also possible to reduce the complexity of behavior. Frustration can lead to a number of characterological changes associated with self-doubt or fixation of rigid forms of behavior.

The mechanism of frustration is quite simple: first a stressful situation arises, leading to overstrain of the nervous system, and then this tension is “discharged” into one or another of the most vulnerable systems.

There are positive and negative reactions to frustration.

Level of anxiety in extreme situations

Anxiety is an emotional experience in which a person experiences discomfort from an uncertain outlook.

The evolutionary significance of anxiety lies in the mobilization of the body in extreme situations. A certain level of anxiety is necessary for normal human functioning and productivity.

Normal anxiety helps us adapt to different situations. It increases under conditions of high subjective significance of choice, external threat and lack of information and time.

Pathological anxiety, although it can be provoked by external circumstances, is due to internal psychological and physiological reasons. It is disproportionate to the real threat or is not related to it, and most importantly, it is not adequate to the significance of the situation and sharply reduces productivity and adaptive capabilities. Clinical manifestations of pathological anxiety are varied and can be paroxysmal or permanent, manifesting both mental and, even predominantly, somatic symptoms.

Most often, anxiety is viewed as a negative state associated with the experience of stress. The state of anxiety can vary in intensity and change over time as a function of the level of stress to which an individual is exposed, but the experience of anxiety is common to any person in adequate situations.

The reasons that cause anxiety and influence changes in its level are diverse and can lie in all spheres of human life. Conventionally, they are divided into subjective and objective reasons. Subjective reasons include informational reasons associated with incorrect ideas about the outcome of the upcoming event, leading to an overestimation of the subjective significance of the outcome of the upcoming event. Among the objective reasons that cause anxiety are extreme conditions that place increased demands on the human psyche and are associated with the uncertainty of the outcome of the situation.

Post-stress anxiety develops after extreme, usually unexpected situations - fires, floods, participation in hostilities, rape, child abduction. Restlessness, irritability, headache, increased quadrigeminal reflex (reaction to a sudden stimulus), sleep disorders and nightmares, including pictures of the experienced situation, feelings of loneliness and mistrust, feelings of inferiority, avoidance of communication and any activities that may remind of what happened are also usually observed. events. If this entire complex develops after a certain latent period after an extreme situation and leads to significant impairments in life, then a diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder is made. Post-stress anxiety is less likely to develop if a person actively acts during an extreme situation.

extreme situation behavior

4. Human readiness to act in extreme situations

A special place should be given to the psychological stability of police officers - as a kind of foundation for professional readiness to perform actions in extreme conditions of operational and official activities.

Psychological stability is understood as a holistic characteristic of a personality that ensures its resistance to the frustrating and stressful effects of difficult situations.

A law enforcement officer (police patrol service, private security detention groups, operational workers, etc.) more often than anyone else finds himself in difficult and sometimes dangerous psychological situations in his daily work activities, which have a stressful effect on the employee’s psyche.

Therefore, psychological training of employees in an educational institution of the Ministry of Internal Affairs should be aimed at developing resistance to:

Negative factors of operational and official activities: tension, responsibility, risk, danger, lack of time, uncertainty, surprise, etc.;

Factors that have a strong effect on the psyche: the type of blood, corpse, bodily injury, etc.;

Confrontation situations: the ability to conduct a psychological struggle with persons who oppose the prevention, detection and investigation of crimes, to resist psychological pressure, manipulation from both law-abiding citizens and offenders; do not give in to provocations, etc.;

Conflict situations in work activities: the ability to analyze the internal causes of the conflict, understand the patterns of their occurrence, course and methods of resolving conflict situations: insult and violence against the individual, hooliganism, robbery, murder, resistance to a government official, verbal and physical aggression, etc. ; the ability to control oneself in psychologically tense, conflicting, provoking situations.

Frequent exposure to dangerous and sometimes life-threatening situations requires these individuals to be able to control themselves, quickly assess difficult situations and make the most appropriate decisions, which will contribute to more effective implementation of assigned tasks and a reduction in emergency incidents and disruptions in professional activity among the personnel of internal affairs bodies business

5. Questionnaire “Inventory of Stress Symptoms”

Answer options

Never, Rarely, Often, Always

1.Are you easily irritated by little things? (1,2,3,4)

2.Do you get nervous if you have to wait for something? (1,2,3,4,)

3.Do you blush when you feel awkward? (1,2,3,4)

4. Can you offend someone when irritated? (1,2,3,4)

5. Does criticism make you angry? (1,2,3,4)

6. If you are pushed on public transport, will you try to answer the offender in kind or say something offensive; Do you often press the horn when driving? (1,2,3,4)

7.Are you constantly doing something, all your time is filled with activities? (1,2,3,4)

8.Have you been late lately or arrived early? (1,2,3,4)

9. Do you often interrupt others or complement statements? (1,2,3,4)

10. Do you suffer from lack of appetite? (1,2,3,4)

11. Do you often experience causeless anxiety? (1,2,3,4)

12.Do you feel dizzy in the morning? (1,2,3,4)

13. Do you feel constantly tired? (1,2,3,4)

14. Even after a long sleep, do you feel exhausted? (1,2,3,4)

15.Are you having problems with your heart? (1,2,3,4)

16. Do you suffer from pain in the back and neck? (1,2,3,4)

17. Do you often drum your fingers on the table, and when sitting, swing your leg? (1,2,3,4)

18. Do you dream of recognition, do you want to be praised for what you do? (1,2,3,4)

19. Do you consider yourself better than others, but, as a rule, no one notices this? (1,2,3,4)

20.You can’t concentrate on what you need to do? (1,2,3,4)

Stress Symptom Inventory

Introductory Notes

The technique allows you to develop observation of signs of stress, carry out self-assessment of the frequency of their manifestation and the degree of susceptibility to the negative consequences of stress.

Processing and interpretation of results. The total number of points scored is calculated.

Up to 30 points. You live calmly and wisely, coping with the problems that life presents. You do not suffer from false modesty or excessive ambition. However, we advise you to check your answers with someone who knows you well: people with such a score often see themselves in a rosy color.

31-45 points. Your life is characterized by activity and tension. You are subject to stress both in the positive sense of the word (striving to achieve something) and in the negative sense (enough with problems and worries). Apparently, you will continue to live the same way, just try to set aside a little time for yourself.

45-60 points. Your life is a constant struggle. You are ambitious and dream of a career. You are quite dependent on other people's assessments, which constantly keeps you in a state of stress. This lifestyle may lead you to personal or professional success, but it is unlikely to bring you joy. Everything will flow like water through your fingers. Avoid unnecessary arguments, suppress anger caused by small things, do not always try to achieve the maximum, give up on this or that plan from time to time.

More than 60 points. You live like a driver who presses on the gas and the brake at the same time. Change your lifestyle. The stress you experience threatens your health and your future. If changing your lifestyle seems impossible to you, try to at least respond to the recommendation.

Conclusion

Modern conditions in which representatives of many professions work, in particular military personnel of the Ministry of Emergency Situations and the Ministry of Defense, law enforcement officers, vehicle drivers, train drivers, nuclear power plant operators and some others, can be fully called special and sometimes extreme.

We can say that psychological preparation for special and extreme types of activity is a targeted impact on a person using psychological and psychophysiological methods aimed at developing her psychological readiness for adequate actions in such situations.

Psychological readiness means a system of psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of a subject that ensure the success and effectiveness of certain actions and activities.

Bibliography

1. Adaev A.I. Assessment and forecast of psychological readiness of police officers for activities in extreme situations. - St. Petersburg, 2004.

2. Vasiliev V.A. Legal psychology. - M., 2002.

3. Smirnov B.A., Dolgopolova E.V. Psychology of activity in extreme situations. -- Kharkov: Humanitarian Center, 2007.

4. Dyachenko M.I. Willingness to act in stressful situations. - Minsk: Aspect, 1985.

5. Zinchenko I.V. Psychology of personality in crisis situations. - Rostov-on-Don: RSU, 2006.

6. Sandomirsky M.E. How to cope with stress: simple recipes or the road to childhood. - Voronezh: MODEK, 2000.

7. Sorokun P.A. Basics of psychology. - Pskov: PGPU, 2005.

6. Stolyarenko A.M. General and professional psychology. - M.: Nauka, 2003.

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Many people find themselves in extreme situations. This could be an earthquake, flood, fire, terrorism and much more.

In stressful situations, a person may become confused or become a combative person during an extreme event. As a result, after experiencing horror and fear, the psyche suffers. A person needs the help of qualified specialists.

What are extreme situations

Sometimes adverse events occur to a person that affect the psyche. These are often called extreme situations. Simply put, this is a change in the usual living conditions.

When a critical situation occurs, a person develops fear that must be dealt with. After all, while he is present, people are not subject to themselves. Most often, strong fear occurs when a person realizes that a certain situation is life threatening. Therefore, after the experience, a person is not able to cope with himself, with his psyche. Such people need the help of a specialist.

After a terrible episode, emotions of excitement overwhelm. There is an opinion that the release of adrenaline from the body is a good thing. However, psychologists have a different point of view. After all, if something unexpected happens, for example, a fire, a person goes into shock. After a successful outcome, a heart attack, heart attack and other unfavorable outcomes are possible. Therefore, it is better to avoid such situations. The psychology of extreme situations is a problem that is very difficult to get rid of.

Kinds

Extreme situations can be unexpected and predictable. For example, natural disasters cannot be expected. These situations appear suddenly. Therefore, from surprise, a person may become confused and not have time to take the necessary measures. Extreme situations are divided into the following types.

1. By scale of distribution. This refers to the size of the territory and the consequences.

• Local situations are only in the workplace and do not extend beyond it. There may be a maximum of 10-11 injured people, no more.
• Object situations. This is a danger in the territory, but it can be eliminated on your own.
• Local situations. Only a certain city (suburb or village) suffers. An extreme situation does not go beyond the locality and is eliminated with its own means, resources and forces.
• Regional. The dangerous situation is spreading to several nearby areas. Federal services are involved in the liquidation. In a regional extreme situation, there should be no more than 500 people affected.

2. According to the pace of development.

• Unexpected and sudden (accidents, floods, earthquakes, etc.).
• Swift. This is a very fast spread. These include fires, emissions of gaseous toxic substances, etc.
• Average. Radioactive substances are released or volcanoes erupt.
• Slow. These could be droughts, epidemics, etc.

Any extreme situation poses a threat to human life.

Every disaster leaves its mark on the psyche of people. Therefore, you need to be very careful and know how to react in a certain situation.

Behavior rules

Not everyone thinks about how to behave at a certain moment. Behavior in an emergency situation is very important. After all, a lot depends on it, including human life.

First of all, you need to be very calm and cool-headed. Count quickly to three and regain your breathing. Try to forget about fear and pain for now. Realistically assess your capabilities, strengths and the situation as a whole. Confusion, panic and indecision will only harm you under such circumstances.

Every person should always be prepared for unexpected danger. Then you can deal with it easier. You must know how to properly administer first aid. With good preparation, there is always the opportunity to save your life or those around you. Behavior in extreme situations must be controlled.

Survival

First of all, you must make sure that your home is safe and sound. Will you be able to stay in the house if there are hurricanes or earthquakes? Check wiring regularly. You must know for sure that in the event of a fire you will be able to get out of the trap unharmed.

Every family should have medicines for all occasions. We must not forget about bandages, iodine, and burn remedy. They are not needed every day, but sometimes they are simply necessary. Survival in extreme situations is a very important factor for every person.

If you have a car, it should always be ready to go. Try to store fuel for such cases.

Don't forget about spare clothes, which should be kept close to your home. Perhaps in a garage or basement. It may be old, but it will keep you warm in the cold.

If every person thinks about their safety in advance, then it will be much easier to survive in any extreme conditions.

Actions

What should a person do in extreme situations? Not everyone will be able to answer this question. One hundred to note. that extreme situations with people happen every day, so it is necessary to know the answer to this question in advance.

If a person finds a suspicious device in a public place, then it cannot be picked up, but must be reported to the police. Even anonymously. Don’t be afraid to report, because if it’s not you who gets hurt, someone else will.

In any situation, you should not give in to panic. This is the most dangerous feeling. Try to pull yourself together, calm down and act according to the situation.

There is always a way out, the main thing is to use it correctly. As a rule, there are others around whom you can turn to for help. Actions in extreme situations must be lightning fast. After all, life depends on it. If you understand that you are not able to cope, shout as long as you can so that you are heard. It is clear that not everyone will help, but at least one person will respond to your misfortune.

Memo to citizens

Every citizen needs help in extreme situations. For this purpose, there is a reminder that does not allow you to forget how to act in case of unforeseen incidents.

If you realize that something has happened to the electricity, for example, the meter is cracking or a light bulb is blinking incorrectly, then immediately turn off the power to the apartment. After all, unwanted emergency situations may occur. At the same time, it is advisable to turn off the gas and water. After this, do not hesitate to call a repairman or emergency service.

It often happens that people do not attach importance to certain little things. Because of this, fires, explosions, etc. occur. Therefore, your documents should be in one place and preferably closer to the exit. In case of danger, you must take them with you. This is the first thing that should come to a person's mind.

Money and necessary things should also be not too far from the exit. In stressful and extreme situations, there is not always time to run around the apartment and pack your bags. Therefore, it is necessary to think in advance that dangerous incidents can occur at any time. You should always remember the rules in extreme situations that can help.

Extreme natural situations

It’s not only in an apartment that danger can overtake a person. There is also plenty of extreme sports in nature. Therefore, a person must be prepared for anything.

For example, you may find yourself in very uncomfortable weather conditions - severe frost and snow. The best solution is to survive the cold. You can build a small cave.

Know that snow is an excellent heat insulator. Therefore, thanks to the snow cave you can wait out the cold.

Never go without water in hot weather. It is very dangerous. After all, when you want to drink, and there is no water nearby, you will be ready to do anything if only they give you a sip of a soft drink. Without water, as we know, a person cannot live long.

In natural extreme situations, you can save yourself. However, you should always remember to take precautions. Emergencies can strike a person at any time.

Adaptation

A person can get used to any living conditions. Even in modern world Not everyone can make full use of water, electricity and gas. Therefore, you can also adapt to extreme situations.

Before you get used to dangerous or unusual conditions, you need to prepare yourself mentally. To do this, read about the unknown area where you are going to go. Try to master the necessary skills.

It is very important to prepare yourself psychologically. If you doubt it, maybe it’s not time to take risks yet? An extreme life situation should not break you. Just be positive.

To make it easier for you to adapt to extreme situations, take care of food, water and warm clothing. Without the basic necessities it is much harder to survive.

Consequences

People who find themselves in extreme situations need help. Each of them has a mental disorder. The consequences vary for people. Some try to forget themselves and find solace in alcohol, others become drug addicts, and still others choose to commit suicide. They all need the help of qualified specialists who will lead a person out of this state.

Psychologists will help you relieve stress, fear and return to normal life. These people cannot be condemned, because none of them is to blame for what happened. Getting rid of memories is not easy at all. If you witness a similar situation, then do not turn away from such people, but try to help them return to a past life where they were calm and comfortable.

Every day, many people need to communicate with doctors such as psychologists or neurologists. After stress, a person ceases to exist and begins to live one day at a time. To make it easier to get through difficult days, psychologists advise:

• Do not panic;
• Remain calm in any situation;
• Practice self-hypnosis more often;
• Get plenty of rest;
• Spend as much time as possible with friends and relatives;
• Don't be alone.

When you see something scary in front of you, try to avoid tears and panic, and look for a way out of the current situation.

If a person who has experienced severe stress, turn to a specialist, it will be easier for him to overcome the current problem. The psychology of extreme situations is very serious, so you need to pay attention to it first.

Conclusion

Each person reacts differently to stressful situations. Some will do everything possible to escape, others will begin to panic. It all depends on the individual person. Everyone's psyche is different. Therefore, one cannot blame those people who give up. After all, they are not to blame for their weakness. There are some extreme situations factors. These are exactly what every person should remember.

In stressful situations, a person’s body becomes exhausted, which is where many other diseases appear. In order to avoid undesirable consequences in the future, you need to seek help from specialists who will help restore the nervous system and return to your previous problem-free life.

An extreme situation is a situation that goes beyond the “usual” framework, requiring an increased concentration of physical and (or) emotional effort from a person, with possible negative consequences for a person’s life, in other words, it is a situation in which a person is uncomfortable (a situation that is unusual for him).

Signs of an emergency

1. The presence of insurmountable difficulties, awareness of a threat or an insurmountable obstacle to the realization of any specific goals.

2. A state of mental tension and various human reactions to the extremity of the environment, overcoming which is of great importance for him.

3. A significant change in the usual (usual, sometimes even tense or difficult) situation, parameters of activity or behavior, i.e. going beyond the “usual”.

Thus, one of the main signs of an extreme situation is insurmountable obstacles to implementation, which can be considered as an immediate threat to the implementation of a set goal or planned action.

In an extreme situation confronts a person environment, and therefore it should be considered in accordance with the situation, which is characterized by a violation of the correspondence between the requirements of activity and the professional capabilities of a person.

Extreme situations are associated with noticeably and dramatically changing conditions in which activities take place. There is a danger of failure to complete a task or a threat to the safety of equipment, equipment, or human life.

Extreme situations represent the extreme manifestation of difficult situations and require maximum strain on a person’s mental and physical strength to overcome them.

Human behavior in extreme situations

A person’s life is a series of all kinds of situations, many of which, due to their repetition and similarity, become familiar. Human behavior is brought to the point of automatism, so the consumption of psychophysical and physical forces in such situations is minimized. Extreme situations are a different matter. They require a person to mobilize mental and physical resources. A person in an extreme situation receives information about its various elements:

20 pp., 9551 words

The level of stress resistance will be low; a person will not be able to quickly adapt to sudden changes in the situation of sports activity. Athletes involved in extreme sports are more prone to... it is a set of stereotypical programmed reactions that primarily prepare the body for physical activity. Which in turn provides most favored nation conditions...

About external conditions;

About your internal states;

About the results of your own actions.

This information is processed through cognitive and emotional processes. The results of this processing influence the behavior of the individual in an extreme situation. Threat signals lead to an increase in human activity. And if this activity does not bring the expected improvement in the situation, the person is overwhelmed by negative emotions of varying strength. The role of emotions in an extreme situation is different. Emotions can also act as an indicator extremity both as an assessment of the situation and as a factor leading to a change in behavior in the situation. And at the same time, it must be remembered that emotional experiences represent one of the important factors of human behavior in extreme situations.

As a rule, an extreme situation is generated by objective reasons, but its extremeness is largely determined by subjective components. So:

— there may not be an objective threat, but a person or group of people mistakenly perceives the current situation as extreme. Most often this happens due to unpreparedness or a distorted perception of the surrounding reality; However, there may be real objective threat factors, but the person does not know about their existence and is not aware of the extreme situation that has arisen;
- a person can realize the extremity of the situation, but evaluate it as insignificant, which in itself is already a tragic mistake that can lead to unpredictable consequences;

- finding himself in an extreme situation and not finding a way out of the current situation, having lost faith in the possibility of its resolution, he escapes from reality by activating psychological defense mechanisms;

- the situation may be objectively extreme, but the presence of knowledge and experience allows you to overcome it without significant mobilization of your resources.

3 pages, 1332 words

Questions on § 1. Man as a personality The main quality of a person, consisting in the ability to assimilate the achievements of culture, consciously engage in the life of society, and be its subject - this is: biological; social (public); spiritual; cultural. The characteristics of a person as a biological being include the presence of: thinking; articulate speech; psyche; highly organized brain. Not...

Thus, a person reacts to an extreme situation depending on how he perceives it and evaluates its significance. There is another specific human reaction to an extreme situation - mental tension. This is the mental state of a person in an extreme situation, with the help of which a person, as it were, prepares for the transition from one psychophysical state to another, adequate to the current situation.
Forms of tension.

- perceptual (arising when there are difficulties in perception);

— intellectual (when a person finds it difficult to solve a problem);

— emotional (when emotions arise that disorganize behavior and activity);

- strong-willed (when a person cannot control himself);

- motivational (associated with the struggle of motives, different points of view).

Mental tension is characterized by increased level activity and significant expenditure of neuropsychic energy. Levels of mental tension may vary from person to person, which is primarily due to a person’s mental stability.

Basic rules of behavior in extreme situations

There are many reasons for the emergence of various kinds of complex and sometimes extreme situations. First of them - natural hazards. The most destructive of them are earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, avalanches, landslides, mudflows, karsts, severe frosts, etc. some of them are sudden and short-term events (earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, landslides, sinkholes, tornadoes) , causing great material losses and human casualties.

Second — diseases and injuries of the human body requiring emergency medical care; sudden change in weather conditions; forced autonomous existence; change in climatic and geographical conditions. In these cases, the success of survival depends on the ability to act in extreme conditions, as well as on equipment, equipment, mental stability and physical fitness. You also need to know how to protect yourself from the scorching sun and icy cold, find and get water, recognize edible plants, help the wounded or sick, and much more.

Third — the most common situation is loss of orientation. First, this can happen to a hiker who lags behind the group. If there is a fork in paths or roads ahead on the route, then the delayed participant faces a choice: which one to follow to catch up with the group. If he makes the wrong choice, he may go off the route.

The second is an unauthorized exit from a resting place without warning the leader or one of the group members.

The third possibility is also possible - for some reason the group is divided into two parts, following different routes to the collection point. In case of poor knowledge of this route, bypassing a difficult area, part of the group may lose orientation or be late to the meeting point, thereby causing search operations.

The main condition determining the possibility of survival is the mood of a person (group) for a successful resolution of the problem, the desire to return home, moral obligations to loved ones, society, the consciousness that he still has a lot to do.

The procedure for analyzing the situation.

The main condition that determines the success of survival (or death) is the mood of a person (group) for a successful exit from this situation, his desire to return home, moral obligations to loved ones, society, and the awareness that he still has a lot to do.

Depends on correct, thoughtful, practiced actions to the point of automaticity. successful outcome, and often the life of a person (group) caught in a situation of forced autonomous existence.

The first thing in this case is - try to calm down and objectively assess the current situation. Analysis of many situations shows that very often the greatest danger for victims is not the accomplished fact itself, but the consequences that await them as a result of the first rash actions.

It is important at the time of an emergency or extreme situation to show a sense of self-control, not to succumb to fear, which does not contribute to concentration and making the right decisions. The first actions under the influence of emotions are dictated by the instinct of self-preservation and are not always correct. We must try to perceive the danger in parts, identifying the priority ones and the promising ones (which may occur if...).

An emergency situation usually occurs suddenly, and its development cannot always be predicted. Therefore, the procedure for such actions depends on the specific situation. The experience of many people who have been in extreme situations associated with vehicle accidents (airplanes, trains, vehicles, etc.) has made it possible to determine a general scheme of priority actions for victims of disaster.

The experience of many people who have been in extreme situations associated with vehicle accidents (airplanes, trains, vehicles, etc.) has allowed determine the general scheme of priority actions for victims of disaster (Scheme 1).

Behavior rules
1. Get over yourself and help the victims get to a safe place		2. When leaving the vehicle, take with you property that may be useful for autonomous existence
3. Provide first aid to victims
4. Get your bearings on the terrain and clarify your location		5. In unfavorable climatic conditions, build a temporary shelter.

Diagram 2. Priority actions for those caught in extreme conditions in nature

Both in emergency and extreme situations in the natural environment, priority actions should be aimed at providing assistance to the victims, then eliminating the threatening factor or quickly getting away from it.

In parallel with the provision of medical care, it is necessary to begin the construction of a simple temporary shelter that can protect victims from wind, snow, rain or scorching sun. Hypothermia or excessive overheating of the body can significantly complicate the situation. Then, in addition to all the existing difficulties, you will have to deal with the consequences of hypothermia and overheating (frostbite, general hypothermia, heat and sunstroke).

In extreme situations, this will only worsen the situation of the victims. Particular attention should be paid to the wounded, weakened, women and children. We should not forget that the situation may worsen due to sudden changes in weather. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly monitor its condition and anticipate the possibility of its change. For the same purpose, an examination of the appearance and putting in order of one’s clothes and shoes is carried out. In an extreme situation, when it is impossible to receive outside help, it is important to preserve the things you have on you, since normal life activities in the future depend on it. We must make every effort to preserve heat resources in cold weather and internal water supplies in hot weather. If clothing needs repairs, it should be done immediately. Care should be taken for people who do not have enough clothing to protect themselves from cold and heat, and if possible, distribute it evenly among all victims. If there is a lack of clothing in cold weather, it is necessary to use existing property that can protect against the cold. Everyone should know: Protecting the body from cold will primarily affect food savings. After this, they collect in one place all the things and equipment lost during the exit to a safe place (at first glance, perhaps unnecessary), which may be useful in an emergency situation. They are sorted, separating what is necessary, first and foremost, and temporarily unclaimed, and are packaged or carefully placed in safe place. In an extreme situation, all things, equipment and personal property, including personal hygiene items, become public and are used to meet the needs of all victims. All food products and available water supplies are collected into a single reserve, forming an emergency reserve. Those responsible for the safety of things, equipment, and products are appointed. Their unauthorized use is strictly prohibited. After this, a natural question arises: what to do next?

Drawing up an action plan when making a decision to move.

To decide on further actions, you need to assess the actual situation and answer the following questions.

1. If your location is unknown, were you following the assigned (agreed) route at the time of the accident? If your absence is discovered, the initial search will be carried out in the area of ​​your intended route.

2. Are the remains of the vehicle clearly visible from the air or surrounding hills? Can you make them visible better?

3. Do local authorities have sufficient manpower and resources at their disposal to organize an effective search?

4. Are weather conditions conducive to the operation of search and rescue aircraft and helicopters?

5. Are transit or other aircraft flying over you? If yes, how often?

6. Do you know your exact location? If yes, how close are you to any populated area? What is the nature of the terrain between you and this locality? What are the climatic conditions and possible difficulties of the proposed travel route? How long will it take to reach this settlement?

7. Will all members of the group or crew be able to withstand the passage in this area? Are there any seriously injured victims requiring immediate medical attention?

8. Do you have enough things and equipment for a long journey, do you have compasses, matches, etc.

9. What supplies of food and water do you have? Assess your emergency supplies and those that can be replenished from natural sources. Is there a good source of water near the site of your accident? Will you be able to get food in a deserted area after you've used up your emergency supplies?

10. What do you know about how to survive in the natural conditions in which you find yourself? If you are not confident in your knowledge and skills, stay in place for three days.

Exists two decision options: Stay at the scene of the accident and wait for help or try to get to the nearest populated area.

The decision to leave the scene of an incident is made in cases where:

— there is no certainty that the group’s exit (departure) point is known about the incident;

— the location of the nearest populated area is known exactly, the distance to it is small and the state of people’s health allows it to be overcome;

- there is an immediate threat to life: a forest fire, a break in the ice field, a flood, etc.;

— people cannot be detected by rescuers at this place due to the dense vegetation surrounding them;

— for three days there is no communication or help.

At the scene of the incident, you must indicate the direction of your departure: leave a note, lay out an arrow, make notches in the trees, tie together tufts of grass, etc.

Before leaving, you should conduct a thorough reconnaissance, determine the direction of exit, pack and prepare everything you need for carrying (maybe even a fire, if there are no matches).

Having decided to leave the scene of the incident, you must adhere to certain rules (Diagram 3)

Diagram 4. The order of actions when making a decision to remain at the scene of the incident and the sequence of their implementation.

To organize such a camp it is necessary to develop detailed plan action, which includes:

1) choosing the most suitable place for a camp, taking into account the terrain, the proximity of firewood and water, the absence of dangers on its territory (dead wood, rockfalls, avalanches, flooding, etc.);

2) camp planning: determining a place for the construction of temporary but reliable housing, places for cooking, storing food, property, garbage and toilets;

3) determining the type of temporary shelter, based on the capabilities of the area and the abilities of the “builders”;

4) preparation and start of construction of the shelter;

5) preparing a place for a fire, preparing a sufficient amount of firewood and lighting a fire.

To successfully implement this plan, as well as to create a normal climate in the group, it is necessary distribute responsibilities among all its members taking into account their state of health and abilities. As you can see, here the actions are carried out in the same way as in a regular tourist group. Then it is clear that it is necessary to identify the people responsible for building a home, obtaining and searching for food, breeding, maintaining a fire and cooking hot food, provision of medical care, etc.

In this case, an indispensable condition is that everyone must have an assignment. This is not a far-fetched requirement. The fact is that the success of survival in an extreme situation is determined by the abilities and capabilities of not only each member of the group individually, but also the group as a whole. However, the life activity of the entire group depends on the physical and moral state of each member of the group. Therefore, from the first moments of an accident, it is necessary to make efforts (and sometimes considerable efforts) to preserve the moral and volitional state of the group as a whole and each participant individually. An indispensable condition for the successful actions of the group in An extreme situation is the presence of a leader. It can be a full-time leader - a crew commander, a leader of a tourist group. In their absence, they can become one of the most prepared people, an authoritative person who can unite the team and direct its efforts to survive in an extreme situation. This could be a person familiar with the rules of survival - a tourist, a hunter, a geologist. With skillful leadership, the group will get rid of such negative manifestations of human behavior as panic, confusion, self-doubt, disunity in actions, selfishness and dependency. Otherwise, conflicts are inevitable, seemingly for the most insignificant reasons. Preventing them from flaring up, gaining strength and splitting the group is the task of the leader. Solving this problem will help you avoid many additional troubles to the existing ones. In the event of a vehicle accident, the group may be completely different people. However, even members of a tourist group caught in an extreme situation may exhibit previously unknown qualities. With the decisive role of the leader, much depends on the group members. Tolerance for the weaknesses or irritation of others, the ability to be the first to reconcile will help to avoid conflicts that destroy the unity of the group. Although there are also creative conflicts that make it possible to find best solution some kind of problem. In an extreme situation, when everyone’s nerves are on edge, destructive conflicts usually arise. The leader's unity of command does not mean refusal to consult with group members on any issues. The ability to listen to them is a great advantage of a leader. But, not agreeing with the arguments of the interlocutors, he must reasonably explain the reason for making his own decision.

Bibliography

1. Kazakov, N.P. Life safety. Ensuring safety in tourism: textbook. for students institutions of higher education prof. education / N.P. Kazakov, N.A. Yakubovskaya. - M.: Academy, 2011. - 240 p.
2. Maslov, A.G., Konstantinov, Yu.S., Latchuk, V.N. Methods of autonomous human survival in nature: textbook. manual for higher students textbook establishments / A.G. Maslov, Yu.S. Konstantinov, V.N. Latchuk. - 2nd ed., ster. - M., 2005. - 304 p.
3. Soloviev, S.S. Safe recreation and tourism: textbook. aid for students universities / S.S. Soloviev. - M.: Academy, 2008. - 288 p.

4. Chernysh, I.V. Survival in extreme situations: textbook. allowance / I.V. Chernysh. - M.: Physical Culture, 2009.

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