Data in the information process are. Processes of information systems. Stages of development of information systems

The 21st century is often referred to as the age of information technology. Today, the product itself or even the person is often not so important - what is known about it is of paramount importance. Information and information processes in our society are not abstract theoretical concepts, but something that often determines life and its quality. Meanwhile, they are not a unique property of the human world. Information processes to some extent proceed at all levels of the organization of living matter. In modern science, they are studied by cybernetics and informatics.

Basic concept

The question of defining the concept of "information" is not as simple as it might seem at first glance. Initially, the term meant the transfer of information between people in a variety of ways. Since about the middle of the last century, the definition of information has been significantly expanded. The concept began to denote information transmitted not only between people, but also between a person and an automaton, two or more automata, as well as the transmission of signals among animals and plants, between cells, the transmission of signs in the process of reproduction.

A special place is given to information in philosophy. This science defines it as an intangible form of movement generated by the brain in the form of concepts, theories and judgments. It is expressed in the form of information: numbers, symbols, signs, letters, and so on, carrying a certain meaning. It is on them that all types of information processes are directed, from storage to transmission.

Types of information

There are many criteria for classifying information. One of them is a channel through which a person receives information from the environment.
We perceive the world around us through the senses, respectively, information is divided into types according to the method used:

visual- the one that came through the visual analyzer. This type accounts for approximately 90% of all incoming information.
auditory- enters through the organs of hearing in the form of sounds. This is about 9% of the information about the world around us.
Tactile information comes as a result of touch through the skin.
Taste- its conductors are receptors located on the tongue.
Olfactory information comes to the person through the nose.

The last three types of information together make up about 1% of the information about the world used by a person. Kinesthetic information from proprioceptors can also be added to the list. It is perceived as a sensation of the position of body parts, relaxation and tension of muscles, movement.

Information is also divided into types in accordance with the participants in the information exchange process:

man - man;
man - machine;
automatic - automatic;
signals exchanged between representatives of the flora and fauna;
transmission of traits from cell to cell;
transmission of traits from organism to organism.

Information, as mentioned above, is an intangible object. However, a person can interact with it only when it is transformed into different kinds data. According to the form of presentation of information, there are:

text;
sound;
graphic;
numerical;
video.

The above list of classification options is far from complete. Information is also divided by purpose, value, truth, and so on.

Meaning of the message

It is worth dwelling on the perception of information. It is due to many factors, from experience to the way information is presented. One and the same word or message will have a different meaning for people who are different according to certain criteria. Previous experience, and knowledge, and cultural characteristics, and belonging to a particular nation, and accentuation of character can have a value. At the same time, the meaning of the same message for a group of people may vary depending on the way it is presented. This is the basis of manipulation and disinformation techniques.

Basic information processes

If you look around, it is easy to see that a lot of a person's life is connected with information. Education, communication, work and entertainment deal with information of various kinds. All actions performed with them are information processes. There are four main types:

storage;
transfer or exchange;
collection;
treatment.

The main information processes are closely interconnected with each other. Their role in human life can hardly be overestimated. All these types of information processes are used in the development of scientific theories, during informal communication, in solving various social problems, and so on. And this is typical not only for the present. The development of civilization makes its own adjustments during information processes, for example, in our time they are becoming more and more automated. However, their content remains generally the same as it was a thousand years ago.

Collection

Whenever a task arises, it becomes necessary to collect the necessary information. This is as true when writing scientific papers or when looking for the right outfit for a party, or when looking for prey by a predator. That is, the above-mentioned information processes, in particular, collection, are characteristic of any level of organization of a living system or automaton. However, for convenience, the article will consider examples related mainly to various areas of human activity.

Gathering information involves obtaining information about the object of interest. The quantity and quality of information is determined only by the purpose of the subject. It can collect all available information about the object or selectively use those that meet certain criteria. A simple example: when a person looks out the window, he can pay attention to everything he sees (the location of houses, passing cars, the number of trees), or only note the features of the weather.

Today, information processes and technologies are closely related to each other. Often a person in search of the necessary information turns to the Internet or other media options. In addition, scientific progress allows people in our time to collect more accurate information and information that is normally inaccessible to the senses. Thus, the famous Hubble telescope helps astronomers to see the remote corners of the Universe, provides information about various processes taking place so far from the Earth that people would never be able to learn about them without the latest equipment.

Exchange

Gathering information is often impossible without sharing information. The data is transferred from the source to the recipient. Information is then converted into various signals that serve as its material carrier. Their sources can be any object with certain properties. The exchange takes place through the channels of information transmission. Sound waves, radio or electrical signals, and the like act as such. In fact, all the sense organs that a person has appear as such channels.

The exchange of information can be either unilateral or bilateral. So, if a person hears that the clock strikes midnight, he acts as a recipient of information from the source, which is the clock. Information is transmitted in one direction. Computer games are a good example of a two-way exchange. The human gives commands, which the machine receives, processes, and then performs an action and outputs data, to which the user again responds, and so on.

During the transmission of information, one or more sources can be used. For example, this happens in the process of preparing scientific reports. There may also be multiple recipients (while reading this report in class).

Of fundamental importance is the speed and accuracy of data transfer. The evolution of computer systems is a clear example of how information process tools are being improved in order to improve these indicators.

Storage

With the transfer, collection and exchange of information is closely related to their storage. Effective provision of information processes is impossible or difficult to imagine without the existence of a specific database. In this capacity, for example, is memory. Without it, a person would have to clarify the rules or principles of this or that activity every time. However, when transmitting information to a large number of people, it is convenient when they are placed not only in the head of a particular person. A variety of media are used to store information. The development of civilization was accompanied by their evolution. The carrier can be any material object, waves of different nature, substance, and so on. Today, a huge place in a person's life is occupied by computer storage devices, which are becoming more and more spacious and perfect every day.

Korzhenkova A.Yu., Kargapolova A.Yu.

The term "Information" from the Latin language means "statement, clarification, set of information" In our real life, information is knowledge that a person receives from various sources. And in computer science, information is a conscious stock of information about the world, which is the object of storage, transformation and exchange.

Information processes- processes associated with certain operations on information objects. They undoubtedly play a significant role in science, technology, and so on. As a result of information revolutions, humanity has acquired a new quality in the field of information processing.

So, obtaining information is closely related to information processes. To better understand this connection, it makes sense to consider their individual types.

Information processes are divided into the collection of information, its exchange, storage and processing.

Collection of information- this is an activity in which the subject accumulates data about the object that interests him, in order to acquire sufficient complete information.

Information exchange- the process of transferring information from a source to a recipient. As a result of the exchange of information, a balance is formed between the source and the recipient, in which the recipient will have all the completeness of this information, just like the sender.

The information exchange channel can serve as the biological channels of a person, i.e. sense organs, as well as material communication channels: telephone, radio, etc. Data storage is the process of keeping data in a state that is always ready to be served to the user. The information obtained can be used repeatedly. To do this, the user must attach it to a medium, such as a photo, magnetic media, etc. The information may not be of any value at the moment, but it may be useful in the future. Data processing is the process of transforming data from its original forms to a specified result.

After the task of processing information is solved, its result should be issued to users in desired form. For example, in the form of graphs, or tables, or texts, etc. The collection, accumulation, storage of information is often not the initial goal of the information process. But most often primary information is used to solve a problem. Then it is transformed according to a certain algorithm, with the help of which the problem is solved.

And so on until the final data is obtained. This data represents all the necessary information after analysis by the recipient.

Literature:

http://allrefs.net/c21/1rl5h/p1/

http://univer.umk-spo.biz/kont/inftexn/klasf

http://www.studfiles.ru/preview/6017817/page:5/

Ticket 1

The concept of information. Types of information. The role of information in wildlife and in human life. Language as a way of presenting information: natural and formal languages. Basic information processes: storage, transmission and processing of information.

Answer:

The concept of information

Informatics- scientific field, the subject of which is information and information processes; in which research is carried out and new means and methods for working with information are invented. Its study begins with an agreement on what should be understood by the term " information"The fact is that the concept of information is usually associated with the information, data, knowledge that a person receives from the surrounding world. In fact, the concept of information is much broader and more complex. It belongs to the number of fundamental general scientific concepts. In this context, the world around us - interconnected and interacting matter, energy and information. The latter can exist in various forms and forms, including those that are in no way connected with a person. Thus, information is a contextual concept, that is, the meaning of the term depends on what meaning we put into it and on the content of the conversation (context) in which it is used. In computer science, "information" is most often understood as data used by a person or a technical device. Data can be stored on physical media and transmitted using signals of various physical nature. Data becomes information only when we start using it.

Types of information

A general classification of types of information is most likely impossible. When it comes to the types of information, some separate field of knowledge, a section of science, technology, etc. is implied. Here are examples of such particular classifications:

analog and discrete

visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, gustatory

text, numeric, graphic, sound

The role of information in wildlife and in human life. Language as a way of presenting information: natural and formal languages. Basic information processes: storage, transmission and processing of information.

The purposeful behavior of living beings is based on the receipt, accumulation, transformation and use of information about the environment. Biologists figuratively say that living things feed on information. In addition, the concept of information is used in connection with studies of the mechanisms of heredity (genetics). It turned out that each cell of the body contains genes (complex molecular structures) that store information about the entire body.

Information for a person is knowledge that he receives from various sources. All knowledge can be divided into two groups: declarative(knowledge about phenomena, events, properties of objects starting with the words I know what) and procedural(determine the actions required to achieve a goal; begin with the words I know how).

Actions performed with information are called information processes. There are three main types of information processes: exchange, storage and processing of information.

A person continuously perceives information from the surrounding world with the help of his senses: sight, smell, touch, taste and hearing (it is called organoleptic). Most (pictures of nature, sounds, smells, taste and touch sensations) are perceived in figurative form. Information perceived by a person in speech or writing is called iconic(character). Human speech and writing are connected with the concept of language. Distinguish natural languages (Russian, English, French, etc.) and formal languages - languages of professions or areas of knowledge (formal languages include the language of mathematical formulas, notes, programming languages, etc.). Language is a symbolic system for representing information. The exchange of information can take place both in direct communication between people and with the help of technical means of communication: telephone, radio, television, computer networks, etc. It should be noted that without the help of technical means, people are able to exchange information only by voice, gestures, facial expressions at a short distance. The development of mankind would be impossible without the exchange of information.

Since ancient times, man has been inventing ways to transmit information. Our ancestors were able to transmit signals with the smoke of a fire, the sounds of a bell, etc. Over the past two centuries, the telegraph, telephone, radio, and television have appeared. In recent years, mobile communications and computer communications have been rapidly developing. Despite all the variety of means of information transfer, the process itself is described by a general scheme:

A person stores information either in his own memory, or on some external media(on paper, audio and video cassettes, etc.). The information that we remember (that is, we store in internal memory) is always available and we can quickly (quickly) use it. Internal memory is therefore often called operational. Unfortunately, the capacity of our memory is limited, besides, over time, a person forgets some of the information. Information on external media is stored more reliably, but in order to use such information, it must first be made operational (for example, to dial a phone number, you must first find it in phone book and read).

A person almost constantly has to deal with information processing. Here are some processing examples:

obtaining new information from the given by calculations or logical reasoning (solving a mathematical problem);

change in the form of presentation of information (translation of text from one language to another);

search for information in the information array (search for a phone number in the phone book);

sorting information (ordering the list of class students in alphabetical order).

The process of processing information manually is very slow, while we tend to make mistakes, get tired, and sometimes processing is impossible. Try mentally multiplying two seven-digit numbers. Happened?

Obviously, a person needs technical means and methods for collecting, receiving, transmitting, storing and processing information - information technology. Their role has always been extremely important and will increase even more as humanity transitions to life in the information society.

Ticket 2

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Data storage. People store information either in their own memory (sometimes they say “in the mind”), or on some external media. Most often - on paper.

The information we remember is always available to us. For example, if you memorized the multiplication table, then you do not need to look anywhere to answer the question: what is five five? Each person remembers his home address, telephone number, as well as the addresses and telephone numbers of loved ones. If you need an address or phone number that we don’t remember, then we turn to a notebook or a telephone directory.

Human memory can be conditionally called operational. Here the word "operational" is synonymous with the word "fast". A person quickly reproduces the knowledge stored in memory.

We can also call our memory internal memory. Then the information stored on external media (in notebooks, reference books, encyclopedias, magnetic records) can be called our external memory.

A person often forgets something. Information on external media is stored longer, more reliably. It is with the help of external media that people pass on their knowledge from generation to generation.

Transfer of information. The dissemination of information between people occurs in the process of its transmission. The transfer can occur during a direct conversation between people, through correspondence, with the help of technical means of communication: telephone, radio, television, computer network.

There are always two parties involved in the transmission of information: there is a source and there is a receiver of information. The source transmits (sends) information, and the receiver receives (perceives) it. Reading a book or listening to a teacher, you are the receiver of information, while working on an essay on literature or answering in a lesson, you are a source of information. Each person constantly has to move from the role of a source to the role of a receiver of information.

The transfer of information from the source to the receiver always occurs through some kind of transmission channel. In direct conversation, these are sound waves; in correspondence - this is a postal service; in a telephone conversation, it is a telephone communication system. In the process of transmission, information can be distorted or lost if the information channels are of poor quality or there is interference (noise) on the communication line. Many people know how difficult it can be to communicate with a bad telephone connection.

Data processing. Information processing is the third type of information processes. Here is a well-known example for you - the solution of a mathematical problem: given the values of the lengths of two legs of a right-angled triangle, you need to determine its third side - the hypotenuse. To solve the problem, the student, in addition to the initial data, must know a mathematical rule with which to find a solution.

In this case, this is the Pythagorean theorem: "the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs." Applying this theorem, we obtain the desired value. Here, the processing is that new data is obtained by calculations performed on the original data.

Computing is just one of the options for processing information. New information can be derived not only by mathematical calculations. Remember the stories of Sherlock Holmes, the hero of Conan Doyle's books. Having often very confusing testimonies of witnesses and circumstantial evidence as initial information, Holmes, using logical reasoning, clarified the whole picture of events and exposed the criminal. Logical reasoning is another way of processing information.

The process of processing information is not always associated with obtaining some new information. For example, when translating a text from one language to another, information is processed that changes its form, but not its content.

Information encoding also belongs to this type of processing. Encoding is the transformation of the representation of information from one symbolic form to another, convenient for its storage, transmission or processing.

The concept of coding began to be used especially widely with the development of technical means for storing, transmitting and processing information (telegraph, radio, computers). For example, at the beginning of the 20th century, telegraph messages were encoded and transmitted using Morse code. Sometimes encoding is done in order to classify the content of the text. In this case, it is called encryption.

Another type of information processing is its sorting (sometimes called ordering). For example, you decide to write down the addresses and phone numbers of all your classmates on separate cards. In what order should these cards be folded so that it is then convenient to search for the necessary information among them? Most likely, you will put them in alphabetical order by last name. In computer science, the organization of data according to some rule that binds it into a single whole is called structuring.

Search for information. You and I very often have to search for information: look for a translation of a foreign word in a dictionary, a phone number in a telephone directory, a train departure time in a railway schedule, a desired formula in a mathematics textbook, a route on a metro map, a library catalog - information about the book. Many more examples could be cited. All this is the process of searching for information on external media: books, diagrams, tables, file cabinets.

Information processes in living nature. Can it be argued that only human life is connected with information and information processes? Of course not! Science knows many facts confirming the flow of information processes in wildlife. Animals are characterized by memory: they remember the way to their habitat, places of food; pets distinguish familiar people from strangers. Many animals have a heightened sense of smell, which carries valuable information to them. Of course, the ability of animals to process information is much lower than that of humans. However, many facts of reasonable behavior testify to their ability to certain conclusions.

Questions and tasks

Basic information processes.

Storage, transmission and processing of information

Any human activity is a process of collecting and processing information, making decisions based on it and implementing them. Information is contained in human speech, texts of books, magazines, newspapers, radio and television messages, instrument readings, etc. A person perceives information with the help of the sense organs, stores and processes it with the help of the brain and the central nervous system. The process of solving a mathematical problem in the mind, the process of translating text from one language to another - all this is information processing. Processes of information processing are the essence of human mental activity.

Man thinks, calculates, speaks, listens, reads, writes. At the same time, he always deals with information.

Information-related processes occur not only in the world related to human activity, but also in wildlife and technology. The organization of wildlife, communities and populations is based on the constant exchange of information, processing of information obtained from inanimate nature. A hen and her chicks are constantly exchanging sounds to keep together so that the hen can protect her babies at any time (View flash animation). According to science, even an unhatched chick already hears its mother and gives her signals from the egg. If one of the bees found a field rich in nectar, then after a while dozens of members of the bee family rush to this place (View flash animation). It is quite obvious that there is a transfer of information, and this will organize the community for specific concerted actions. Seasonal changes in the plant world are the result of the information process. The temperature of the air and soil, the length of daylight hours are environmental signals that are important for the survival of the plant. All the actions and processes listed in the examples can be combined under the general name - information processes (View flash animation).

An information process is a set of sequential actions performed on information in order to obtain a result. Among all information processes, the most common ones can be distinguished. These include the transmission, storage and processing of information.

The information received by the consumer always comes from some source. In this case, we talk about the transfer of information. Information is transmitted over a transmission channel, going from the source to the receiver. A transmission channel is a medium that delivers information. The nature of information channels is the oscillatory movements of the environment: sound, light, electromagnetic waves etc. With the discovery of radio waves and the creation of devices that generate and capture them, revolutionary changes have taken place in the transmission of information.

Information is transmitted in the form of a sequence of signals that make up the information message. The physical meaning of the signal through which information is transmitted may not coincide with the meaning of the transmitted information. The perception of information is unthinkable without certain preliminary agreements and knowledge, without which the signal will be perceived only as a message about some fact that is not clear how to interpret. In one case, raised hands express an emotional outburst about the victory, and in the other, they indicate the surrender of the enemy. To achieve mutual understanding, a preliminary agreement on the meanings of the signals is necessary. Therefore, there are alphabets of various languages, traffic rules, Morse code, Braille, etc.

In the process of transmission, information can be lost, distorted due to interference and harmful effects. The reasons for such impacts can be both technical in nature - overloads, vibrations, electrical and magnetic fields, changes in temperature, pressure, humidity of the environment, and the result of human intervention (View flash animation). To neutralize interference, stable materials and means of communication are used, redundant codes are programmed to restore the original information. The development of digital communication channels opens up new opportunities for users of computer networks.

To protect information from unauthorized interference, it becomes necessary to classify it. At the everyday level, the concepts of coding and encryption are sometimes substituted (View flash animation). A cipher is a secret code for converting information in order to protect it from illegal users. Information protection is an important component of the processes of storage, processing, transmission and use of information in systems of any type, especially social and technical ones. The invention and use of ciphers is the science of cryptography.

Information is distributed not only in space, but also in time. Ancient manuscripts, books, cave drawings, archaeological finds are sources of information from the depths of time. Geological deposits are witnesses of the historical processes of the development of the earth. Thanks to the genetic information that is stored in an encoded form in the DNA molecule and transmitted to the next generations, there is an uninterrupted change of generations of each species of living beings.

Information processing is the process of obtaining new information based on existing information. The transformation of information may be associated with a change in its content or form of presentation. In the latter case, one speaks of encoding information. For example, encryption of information or translation of texts into another language.

Organizing information (schedules), searching for the necessary information in the information array (phone number in the phone book) are other processing options. Text editing, mathematical calculations, logical reasoning are examples of procedures for obtaining new information.

Information processing can be carried out formally, guided by the rules according to a given algorithm. Either a heuristic approach is applied, in which a new system of actions is created or previously unknown patterns of the studied information are discovered.

Information cannot exist without its carrier. A storage medium is a medium that directly stores information. Note that the word "carrier" means "to carry in itself", that is, to contain, not to carry information. The carrier of information about oneself is practically any object, phenomenon, living being. You can use other means to store information about something. It can be a material object (stone, wood, papyrus, paper, magnetic, optical media). For example, we write down a task in a notebook, and a video cassette contains a film that is interesting to us. These can be waves of different nature (light, sound, electromagnetic) or different states of matter. Everyone knows about the wave representation of information from the school physics course. And how to connect information and the state of matter? We illustrate the explanation with the following example. Consider milk. According to the temperature state, it can be: steam, heated, hot, boiling, cold. The described set of qualities (codes) constitutes an alphabet, which can be used to communicate information about the state of milk.

In order to be able to repeatedly use information in the future, so-called external (in relation to human memory) information carriers are used. Notebooks, reference books, magnetic records, paintings, photo and film documents, etc. Retrieving information from external media is often time-consuming and requires additional funds. For example, in order to receive the information contained on an audio cassette, a tape recorder is needed.

In society, the storage of media with information is organized in special storages. For books, these are libraries (View flash animation), for paintings and drawings, art museums, for documents, archives, patent offices, etc. Computer technology provides great opportunities for organized storage of information in a compact form (View flash animation): electronic, magnetic, optical media. Here, such indicators as information capacity, information access time, storage reliability, uptime play a role.

Human society is capable of accumulating information and passing it on from generation to generation. Throughout history, the knowledge and life experience of individuals, as well as "collective memory" - the traditions, customs of peoples, have been accumulating.

Questions for self-control

1. How do you understand the term "information"? What is common and what is the difference between the everyday concept of this term and its scientific interpretations?

Give examples confirming the presence and commonality of information processes in wildlife, society, and technology.

3. What is the manifestation of human information activity?

4. Why is a computer called a universal tool for information activity?

5. In what form can information be transmitted from person to person, what determines the choice of this form?

6. What determines whether the message you receive will be informative? List the main properties of information.

| Lesson planning for the academic year (according to the textbook by N.D. Ugrinovich) | Information processes in various systems

Lesson 2
Information processes in various systems

§ 1.1. Information in nature, society and technology

1.1.3. Man: information and information processes

Approximately 40 thousand years ago, in the process of the evolution of wildlife, a reasonable person (lat. Homo sapiens) appeared. A person exists in a "sea" of information, he constantly receives information from the world around him with the help of his senses, stores it in his memory, analyzes it with the help of thinking and exchanges information with other people.

Ways of perception of information. The purposeful behavior of a person, as well as animals, is based on the analysis of information signals that he receives with the help of the senses. The nerve endings of the sense organs (receptors) perceive the impact (for example, in the fundus of the eye, cones and rods react to exposure to light rays) and transmit it through the nervous system to the brain.

Ways of perception of information by living organisms depend on the presence of certain sense organs. A person can use different ways perception of information using various sense organs:

. vision- with the help of the eyes, information is perceived in the form of visual images;
. hearing- with the help of the ears and hearing organs, sounds are perceived (speech, music, noise, etc.);
. smell- with the help of special receptors of the nose, odors are perceived;
. taste- receptors of the tongue allow you to distinguish between sweet, salty, sour and bitter;
. touch- skin receptors (especially fingertips) provide information about the temperature of objects and the type of their surface (smooth, rough, etc.);
. spatial orientation- gravitational receptors allow you to get information about the position of the body in space.

The greatest amount of information (about 90%) a person receives through vision, about 9% through hearing, and only 1% through other senses (smell, touch, taste and orientation in space).

A person stores the information received in the form of visual, auditory and other images in memory, processes it with the help of thinking and uses it to control their behavior and achieve their goals. For example, when crossing the road, a person sees traffic lights and moving cars, analyzes the information received and chooses safe option transition.

Information in the form of messages. Man cannot live outside of society. In the process of communicating with other people, a person transmits and receives information in the form of messages. At the dawn of human history, sign language was used to convey information, then oral speech. Currently, messages are exchanged between people using hundreds of natural languages (Russian, English, etc.).

In order for the information to be understood, the language must be known to all people involved in communication. The more languages you know, the wider the circle of your communication. Understandability is one of the properties of information.

According to the biblical legend of the Babylonian pandemonium, the tower being built in the ancient city of Babylon was not finished and collapsed, as hundreds of builders suddenly spoke in different languages and ceased to understand each other (Fig. 1.5).

Rice. 1.5. Tower of Babel. Painting by Brueghel the Elder

Information in the form of knowledge. From the very beginning of human history, there was a need to accumulate information for its transmission in time from generation to generation and transmission in space over long distances. The process of accumulation of information began with the invention in the 4th millennium BC of writing and the first information carriers (Sumerian clay tablets and ancient Egyptian papyri).

In order for a person to be able to correctly navigate in the world around him, the information must be complete and accurate. Completeness and accuracy are two more properties of information. The task of obtaining complete and accurate information about nature, society and technology is facing science. The process of systematic scientific knowledge of the surrounding world, in which information is considered as knowledge, began in the middle of the 15th century after the invention of printing.

For long-term storage of knowledge (transmission from generation to generation) and their dissemination in society (replication), information carriers are needed. The material nature of information carriers can be different.

Until now, paper has been used as the main carrier of information. In the last century, photographic and film films were widely used for storing graphic information. Currently, magnetic media, flash memory and optical media (CD and DVD) are also widely used to store information (Fig. 1.6).

Rice. 1.6. First printed book and modern optical disc

Media. The term "mass media" is widely known - the media (newspapers, radio, television), which bring information to every member of society. Such information must be accurate, up-to-date and useful. These are properties of information that are important to the media. Inaccurate information misleads members of society and can be the cause of social upheaval. Irrelevant information has no use at the present time, and therefore no one, except historians, reads last year's newspapers. Useless information creates information noise that makes it difficult to perceive useful information.

test questions

1. What methods and sense organs does a person use when perceiving information?

2. What should be the properties of the information presented in the form of messages?

3. What should be the properties of information presented in the form of knowledge?

4. What should be the properties of information disseminated by the media?

Provision of information - actions aimed at obtaining information by a certain circle of persons or transferring information to a certain circle of persons.

Dissemination of information - actions aimed at obtaining information by an indefinite circle of persons or transferring information to an indefinite circle of persons.

Each of the following stages of the information circulation process has its own objective laws. Studying them will allow you to competently organize the work of any information system.

1. In the sources of information, information is created.

In the field of creation (production) of information, an objective law of incomplete use of information operates, which is determined both by the property of redundancy of information and the inability of subjects to fully use it.

From a legal point of view, the creation of information is the generation of information products and resources in the process of creative, industrial and other socially useful activities of a person and a citizen, legal entities, bodies and other subjects of the right to information.

Legal regulation is present here in the form of regulatory norms that contribute to the creation of organizational and economic prerequisites for the development and improvement of information production; in the form of guarantees of freedom of creativity, behavior, education, in the form of protection and protection of intellectual property rights, as well as in the form of prohibitions on the production of "harmful" information, the dissemination of which may harm the legitimate interests of other subjects of information relations.

Information gathering is the process of obtaining information from the outside world and bringing it to a form that is standard for a given information system. The necessary stages in the information collection system are its perception and transformation.

The perception of information is the process of converting information entering a social, technical system or a living organism from the outside world into a form suitable for further use. Thanks to the perception of information, the connection of the system with the external environment (which can be a person, an observed object, a phenomenon or a process, etc.) is ensured. The perception of information is necessary for any information system, as soon as it claims to be of any utility.

The processes of perception of information are influenced by the following factors: the need for information is the need for the individual to receive and use the information received in practical activities; interest in information is, first of all, the isolation of any information from the flow functioning in a given society. Interest in information is characterized by such parameters as depth, breadth, specialization; sociocultural level of the individual. This factor characterizes a person's possession of a certain amount of cultural values.

Modern information systems, created, as a rule, on the basis of a computer, have a more or less (depending on the purpose of the system) developed system of perception as its component. The information perception system can be a rather complex set of software and hardware. Depending on the analyzers (included in the complex of technical means of the perception system), the perception of visual, acoustic and other types of information is organized.

Information transformation is the second stage of information collection, as a result of which information must be presented in a form suitable for its further use. The main forms of information representation in the information system are analogue and digital forms.

The analog form of information representation is associated with such categories of media used in modern information systems as text, video and voice. One of the first ways prehistoric humans communicated was through sound. Sounds denoted emotions such as pleasure, anger, and danger, as well as objects in the environment, including, for example, food, tools, and so on. The sounds took on their meanings according to certain conventions by using them repeatedly under similar circumstances. Combining parts of sound allowed more complex concepts to be represented, gradually leading to the emergence of speech and, ultimately, to spoken "natural" languages.

In the field of information collection, an objective law of information growth operates - the number of elements involved in the process of ensuring the growth of information in it, q is the coefficient of the level of organization of communication in the system, i.e. communication of its elements.

Indeed, any system can acquire information from the external environment. But each subject of the system should strive to obtain new information for this system, different from that received by all other subjects. The latter is possible if their actions are well coordinated, if they are informed about the achievements of all other subjects. Information is acquired from the external environment in the process of material activity, in scientific and design developments, thanks to life experience, in the process of communication, in training, etc. It follows that the largest number of elements (subjects or objects) should operate in information-intensive areas of activity.

The law of information growth is called the basic law of cybernetics, informatics and social systems.

As a result of this law in society from 1900 to 1950, the amount of information increased by 8-10 times, until the 80s the amount of information doubled every 5-7 years; in the 1980s, the doubling was already happening every 20 months; in the 90s - every year. This phenomenon is called "information explosion".

The law of information growth predetermines the continuous objective process of increasing the amount of information in nature and society, which is what we observe in reality.

To search for information of interest in the entire array of circulating information, information must be organized. Consider the main means of organizing information.

Cataloging and classification are tried-and-true tools, often grouped under the general heading of indexing, to provide the necessary level of information organization. Both have been in use for as long as libraries have existed, but their importance in the so-called information age has increased significantly with the use of computers.

The purpose of the catalog is to identify all objects in a collection and to group similar objects together. All the great libraries of the ancient world had to have lists and descriptions on clay tablets, in stone, on papyrus, parchment, palm leaves or on bamboo strips. Examples of this can be found in museums around the world.

Thesauri occupy a special place among catalogs. The new use of the term thesaurus, now in widespread use, dates from the early 1950s in connection with the work of N.R. Luhn of IBM, who was looking for a computer process capable of generating a list of authorized terms for indexing scientific literature. The list was to include a cross-reference structure between concept families. The main thesaurus, and one of the earliest, is Thesaurofacet (1969), a highly detailed list of engineering terms developed by Gene Atchison for the English Electric Company. The thesaurus has proven to be very useful for both indexing and searching in machine systems.

Thesauri contain subject headings organized into lists that help users find the appropriate heading for a topic (section) of interest, identify related terms used for narrower or broader subject headings. One of the functions of a managed vocabulary is to select from a large group of synonyms a single term that most accurately describes a topic.

The next stage is the transfer of information between various elements of the information system. The transfer of information is carried out different ways: using a courier, forwarding by mail, delivery by vehicles, remote transmission via communication channels. Remote transmission via communication channels reduces the time of data transmission, but its implementation requires special technical means (optical fiber networks, modems, faxes, etc.). Automatically collecting information, these technical means can transfer it directly to the computer memory for further processing. It is on this that all modern electronic document management systems are built.

The message from the source to the receiver is transmitted in material and energy form - electrical, light, sound and other signals. A person perceives the message with the senses. Information receivers in technical systems are measuring and recording equipment.

The information channel combines biological, social, technical (radio, television) and psychological processes (information perception, memorization, reproduction). Information channels are complex telecommunication systems and physical fields (electromagnetic, radio waves). And, of course, communication channels can introduce various kinds of distortions into the transmitted information. Accordingly, there is a need to develop transmission methods that reduce information distortion. This is the subject of one of the main theorems of the theory of information about the transmission of signals over communication channels in the presence of interference leading to distortion - Shannon's theorem. Let it be necessary to transmit a sequence of symbols that appear with certain probabilities, and there is some probability that the transmitted symbol will be distorted during transmission. The simplest way to reliably restore the original information from the received one is to repeat each transmitted character a large number of times. However, this will lead to a decrease in the information transfer rate, practically reducing it to zero. Shannon's theorem states that there exists a positive number that depends only on the specified probabilities such that at a transmission rate less than or equal to this number, it is possible to recover the original character sequence with a very small error probability. At the same time, at a speed greater than this number, this is no longer possible.

The central stage in the process of information circulation in an information system is information processing. Depending on the general purpose of the system, at this stage, the collected information is systematized, search, logical or other analytical procedures are implemented. For example, it is carried out statistical analysis collected data or automatic translation into another language of the entered texts.

Necessary in the process of information circulation in the information system is the stage of information storage. For information to be disseminated widely, repositories external to human memory are needed; the accumulation of human experience, knowledge and learning would be impossible without such a memory, making the appearance of writing absolutely necessary.

During the 20th century, universal electromagnetic means opened up new possibilities for fixing primary analog information. Magnetic audio tape is used to capture speech and music, magnetic video recording provides a low-cost means to record analog voice and video signals directly and simultaneously.

Magnetic technology has other areas of application for direct recording of analog information, including alphanumeric. Magnetic symbols, barcodes and special marks are printed on checks, forms and forms for subsequent reading by magnetic or optical devices and converting them into digital form. Banks, educational institutions and retailers are completely switching to this technology. Nevertheless, paper and film continue to be the dominant medium for the direct storage of textual and visual information in analog form.

The versatility of modern information systems is associated with their ability to represent information electronically in the form of digital signals and manipulate them automatically at an extremely high speed. Information is stored in a large number of binary (binary) devices, which are the basic components of digital technology. Since these devices are in only one of two states, information is presented in them either as the absence or presence of energy (electrical impulse). These two states of binary devices are conveniently denoted by binary digits - zero (0) and one (1).

In this way, the alphabetic characters of natural language writing can be represented numerically as combinations of zeros (no pulse) and ones (presence of pulse).

The creation of recording media and recording techniques enabled society to begin building repositories of human knowledge. The idea of collecting and organizing written records seems to have originated in the Sumerians about 5,000 years ago; Egyptian writing appeared shortly thereafter. Early collections of Sumerian and Egyptian texts, written in cuneiform on clay tablets and in hieroglyphs on papyri, contain information on legal and economic transactions.

In these and other early collections of documents (for example, Chinese dating back to the Shang Dynasty in the 2nd millennium BC, and Buddhist in India dating back to the 5th century BC), it is difficult to separate the concepts of archive and library.

From the Middle East, the concept of a collection of documents entered the Greco-Roman world. Roman emperors institutionalized census collections as early as the 6th century BC. The Great Library in Alexandria, founded in the 3rd century BC, is known as the largest collection of papyri containing inventory records, tax and other payments to citizens, merchants and each other. It is, in short, the ancient equivalent of today's administrative information systems.

The academic brilliance of the Islamic world from the eighth to the thirteenth century can be largely attributed to the existence of public and private book libraries. So, Beit Al-Hikm ("House of Wisdom"), founded in 830. in Baghdad, contained a public library with a large collection of materials on a wide range of issues, and a library of the 10th century. Caliph Al-Hakam in Cordoy (Spain) has more than 400,000 books.

Belated but Rapid Development of European Libraries XVI century followed the invention of type printing, which encouraged the growth of the printed matter and publishing industry. Since the beginning of the 17th century, literature has become the most important medium for the dissemination of knowledge. The concept of "primary literature" is used to refer to source information in various printed publications: newspapers, monographs, conference proceedings, educational and business journals, reports, patents, bulletins and information leaflets. Academic journal - a classic means of scientific communication first appeared in 1665. Three hundred years later, the number periodicals worldwide was estimated at more than 60,000, reflecting not only the growth in the number of scientists and the expansion of the body of knowledge due to specialization, but also the maturation of the reward system that encourages scientists to publish.

Within a short time there was a rapid increase in the amount of printed information, which insured any individual from completely absorbing even a tiny fraction of it. Techniques such as tables of contents, summaries, and indexes of various types, which aid in the identification and retrieval of relevant information in primary literature, have been in use since the 16th century and led to the creation of what has been called "secondary literature" in the 19th century. The purpose of secondary literature is to "filter" primary information sources - usually in a particular area - and provide pointers to this literature in the form of reviews, abstracts and indexes. During the past century, systems of subject, national, and international abstracting and indexing have been established that act as gateways to several attributes of primary literature: authors, subject matter, publishers, dates (and languages) of publication, and citations. The professional activity associated with these accessibility tools is called documentation.

Huge arrays of printed materials make it impossible, as well as undesirable, for any institution to acquire and store even a small part of them. Ownership of recorded information has become a matter of public policy, as many countries have established national libraries and archives to manage the organized collection and acquisition of documents. Since these institutions alone cannot keep up with the release of new documents and records, new forms of cooperative planning and sharing of recorded materials are developing, namely public and private, national and regional library networks and consortiums.

The emergence of digital technology in the middle of the 20th century has actively influenced the storage of information accumulated by mankind. Improvements in computer memory, data communications, computer sharing software, and automated text indexing and retrieval techniques fuel the development of computer databases. Electronic applications to bibliographic management in libraries and archives have led to the development of computerized catalogs and to the integration of catalogs into library networks. They also resulted in the introduction of comprehensive automation programs in these institutions.

The explosive development of communication systems after 1990, especially in the academic world, accelerated the emergence of the "virtual library". Publicly oriented information becomes the leading feature of development. Housed in thousands of databases distributed around the world, a growing portion of this vast resource is now available almost instantly via the Internet - the network of computer networks that links global communities of users. Internet resources of electronic information include selected library catalogues, collected works of literature, some referencing journals, full-text electronic journals, encyclopedias, scientific data from numerous disciplines, software archives, demographic directories, hundreds of thousands of bulletin board messages and email.

As a rule, the information systematized and stored in the information system is intended for a certain circle of users. Moreover, not only people, but also other information systems can act as users. Simultaneous provision of the same information to a wide range of users leads to the need for its replication. In the process of replication, identical copies of information are created, which at the next stage should be distributed to the addressees. From a technical point of view, all copies are absolutely identical. However, in the process of solving legal problems, the problem of distinguishing between the original and copies of the document arises. To protect the original document, additional procedures are applied, such as an electronic digital signature.

The dissemination of information is often associated with the need to overcome information barriers. Today, the following information barriers are distinguished in the scientific literature: a large amount of information. The avalanche-like flow of information that has been observed in recent years does not allow a person to perceive it in full; technical barriers. For example, artificial interference that prevents reliable reception of radio and television programs, i.e. distribution of radio, television and other technical signals in the frequency band on which broadcasting is carried out under a license. Technical barriers can also be industrial interference (i.e., artificial interference that occurs during the operation of technical devices in the course of economic activity); barrier of ignorance (ignorance). The consumer does not know that the information he needs actually exists; communication barrier. The consumer knows that the information he needs exists, but he has no way to get it. The reasons here can be different: from lack of communication between specialists, institutions, countries to explicit or implicit unwillingness to widely disseminate information, delay and concealment of information by ministries, departments and other organizations; interlingual and intralingual barriers. The information is available, but written in a language unfamiliar to the consumer. Information may not be perceived due to the inconsistency of terminology and sign systems used by different disciplines.

In the field of information dissemination, an objective law of information redundancy operates. Positive redundancy of information aims to optimize the entire communication process. Positive redundancy is used actively in the learning process, when repeated repetitions of characteristic situations lead to better assimilation by the audience.

Positive redundancy is often used by the legislator as a technique to improve the efficiency of the perception of regulations. Thus, many provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation are repeated in federal laws and the legislation of the subjects of the Federation.

Negative redundancy disrupts the normal course of the information process. It represents a kind of "noise" or "interference". These are, for example, declarative norms and provisions that are not provided with an implementation mechanism. Not performing the functions of regulation and self-regulation, such laws are negatively redundant. A means of overcoming negative redundancy is the high level of preparation of regulatory legal acts.

Another objective law that operates during the dissemination of information is the law of distortion of information as it moves. This law is associated with the different ability and readiness of subjects to perceive it. That is why, in cases where the reliability and completeness of information is important, the question arises of fixing information on a material carrier and observing certain requirements for the procedure and method of fixing. So, for example, in order for information to have probative value in the course of a trial, it must be documented in compliance with strictly established procedural requirements.

According to the method of distribution, direct and indirect distribution can be distinguished. With direct distribution, the creator of the information product directly affects the consumer (actual communication, the transfer of ideas in the educational environment: lectures, other group activities, conferences, seminars, rallies, theatrical performances, cultural events). Legal regulation here provides for the establishment of prohibitions on the dissemination of confidential and "harmful" information, including false information and slander, and liability for this, as well as legal protection and protection of copyright and related rights.

In case of mediated distribution, there is an intermediary between the creator of information and the consumer - a means of fixing and transmitting information, the presence of which predetermines the mass nature of such information relations. With the historical development of the means and technologies for disseminating information, the mass nature of information exchange and the importance of information in society grew, which predetermined a high degree of legal regulation here.

According to the Law on Information in Russian Federation dissemination of information is carried out freely subject to the requirements established by the legislation of the Russian Federation.

Information disseminated without the use of the mass media must include reliable information about its owner or about another person distributing information, in the form and to the extent that are sufficient to identify such a person.

When using means to disseminate information that allow identifying the recipients of information, including postal items and electronic messages, the person distributing information is obliged to provide the recipient of information with the opportunity to refuse such information.

It is prohibited to disseminate information that is aimed at propaganda of war, inciting national, racial or religious hatred and enmity, as well as other information, the dissemination of which provides for criminal or administrative liability.

Information process is the interaction between the message and the sender and consumer of information. In other words, information processes are a set of sequential operations (registration, transfer, accumulation, storage, processing, issuance of information), actions and communications for the exchange of information carried out in the communication system.

According to the communication channels distinguish information processes: formal and informal. Informal processes include processes that are performed directly by scientists or specialists themselves: dialogue between them, visits to research and production units and laboratories; exhibitions; exchange of letters, publications. For informal processes, it is characteristic that scientists or specialists themselves take part in the communications; and information processes are inseparable from their professional activities. Formal processes were formed gradually in the course of specialization, the social division of labor and received their organizational design, which manifested itself in such areas of activity as: editorial and publishing, bookselling, library and bibliographic, archiving, etc. A special place belongs to scientific and information activities (SDI ). The concept of research and development includes the following interrelated and interdependent information processes: collection; analytical and synthetic processing (transformation); storage; Search; distribution (distribution).

in particular, S.P. Kulitsky defines the information-analytical process "as a process in the field of management, which is a process of searching, collecting, processing and presenting information in a form suitable for its use" .

Consider general characteristics information processes in the applied aspect in the context of NIDERL.

Collection of information - this is the process from which all information work begins. It consists in the receipt by information services of messages of all kinds through various communication channels. This initial process is the most important for all subsequent information processes, information activities in general. Information messages recorded in documents and on other information carriers are collected in a fund or in an array of information.

Following the process of collecting information is the process of processing information, which is divided into processing: 1) technical and 2) scientific. Technical processing consists in recording and registering the receipt of messages, checking them for duplicates with those available in the fund. Scientific processing consists in informational analysis and synthesis of messages; and is otherwise called analytical-synthetic processing (or processing) of information.

Data storage - this is a process associated with ensuring the safety of collected and processed (in information services) messages for their transmission in space and time.

Information messages implemented in a certain material form can be stored in the following services: documentary information (book depositories, depositories, libraries, archives, museums, etc.); factual information (editor of newspapers, television, address and reference bureaus, etc.); conceptual information (services of patent examination, forecasting); complex information services (services and information centers).

Information retrieval - this is the process of finding in a certain ordered set of those messages that correspond to the needs of the consumer or contain the facts and information necessary for the consumer. In other words, information retrieval is understood as a set of logical and technical operations with the ultimate goal of finding documents, information about them, facts, data relevant to the user's request.

Depending on the desired object and purpose, the following main types of search are distinguished, such as: documentary search (search for information about a document (bibliographic description, annotation, abstract) or document (original source or its copy); and factographic search (search for data, facts extracted from documents or those facts that function separately (characteristics of devices, properties, materials).

For the competent implementation of this important process for the IAD, it is necessary to master the methodological skills and strategy of information retrieval, the definition of types of search tasks; criteria for issuing information in response to search queries, in particular, using logical operators (OR, AND, NOT); information retrieval efficiency indicators. The theory and methodology of information retrieval are the topics of other teaching aids and textbooks on computer science and information activity.

Dissemination (dissemination) of information - this is the final information process, the essence of which is to issue a response to a consumer request.

There are two main modes of dissemination of information (or informing): reference and current. Reference mode provides for bringing retrospective information to the user in response to a one-time request. Current information is to provide users with information about new entries in the system and is carried out by mass, group and individual methods, well known in the practice of information services.

Selective dissemination of information (SDI) is one of the most frequently used forms of current information, which allows you to promptly, systematically and differentiatedly meet the information needs of specialists in accordance with their constant requests. VRI system subscriptions can be both individual and collective users. In domestic information practice, such varieties of the VRI system have been accumulated as systems of differentiated service for managers; thematic management services; problem-oriented informing managers. These systems were distinguished by the depth of analysis of the information provided to the user and the presence of feedback from him.

Consideration of information processes (mechanisms) becomes especially relevant when information is considered as an integral control element of any system. This element should be effectively used to achieve specific goals and solve the problems facing the enterprise. The modern scientific and technological revolution has introduced a new concept - the information age. As you know, the industrial society has replaced the agrarian society, in our time, the industrial society is being replaced by the information society, the basis of which is information processes and information technologies.

The definition of information processes taking place in modern society is considered in close connection with the concept of information activity. According to the Law of Ukraine "On Information", information activity is a set of actions aimed at meeting the information needs of citizens, legal entities and the state. DSTU 2392-94 "Information and Documentation. Basic Concepts. Terms and Definitions" defines information activity as the constant and systematic collection and processing of recorded information for the purpose of its storage, search, use or transfer, performed by any person or organization.

that is, information activity - human activity associated with the processes of obtaining, processing, accumulating and transmitting information. In accordance with this interpretation, the information process consists of the following components: obtaining information; processing (generalization) of information; accumulation (storage) of information; transfer of information.

All this can be represented in the form of a diagram shown in Fig. 2.

Rice. 2. in

Thus, the characteristics of the information process in the context of the implementation of information activities and, in particular, scientific and information activities, and the definition of the information process in accordance with regulatory and educational and scientific documents are given.