Architectural and structural elements of buildings. Types and types of walls What is the name of the collection of walls

What is the branch of material production that ensures the creation and reconstruction of industrial, domestic, social, cultural and housing facilities?

Name what is carried out within the framework of a single sectoral system, taking into account the national interests, the interests of the regions and local self-government, which is associated with the differentiation of state property (national and local) and the assignment of construction complex and housing facilities to local authorities. public utilities?

Name what ensures the development of other sectors of the economy, the socio-cultural sphere, the most diverse public and individual needs for relevant products, and is the most important guarantor of the national security of society and the state?

Name what is meant by the historically established economy of the whole country or the totality of sectors and types of material production and the non-productive sphere, or the totality of economic relations that develop in the system of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of goods?

Topic 23. ADMINISTRATIVE LAW AND ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT.

Name who carries out intersectoral management?

a) Ministry of Culture;

b) Ministry of Education;

c) Ministry of Economy;

d) Ministry of Health;

a) national economy;

b) agriculture;

c) industry;

d) trade;

2. Continue the sentence. Branches are distinguished in the national economy. Which include...:

a) culture;

b) housing and communal services;

c) education;

d) customs control;

3. Continue the sentence. The basis of the economy, the economic system of the Republic of Belarus is ...:

a) education;

b) trade;

c) property;

d) finance;

4. Continue the sentence. Economic management issues are under the jurisdiction of ...:

a) economic committees; departments of energy, fuel and communications of regional executive committees;

b) health departments of district executive committees;

c) health departments of local administrations of districts in Minsk;

d) finance committee;

a) agriculture;

b) industry;

c) finance;

d) trade;

a) industry;

b) management of construction and housing and communal services;

c) communication management;

d) agriculture;

a) trade;

b) economics;

c) construction;

d) industry;

8. What area covers the management of the housing stock and public utilities, their maintenance, construction and repair?

a) industrial;

b) agricultural;

c) construction;

d) housing;

a) housing stock;

b) building fund;

c) industry;

d) communications;

10. Name the republican government bodies in the field of housing and communal services and construction:

a) the Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs;

b) the Ministry of Housing and Communal Services of the Republic of Belarus and the Ministry of Architecture and Construction of the Republic of Belarus;

c) the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Agriculture and Food;

d) the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Health;

Low curly columns in the form of columns (sometimes with carved decor) supporting the railings of balconies, stairs, etc.;

(French balustrade from Italian balaustrata) - a fence (usually low) of stairs, balconies, terraces, etc., consisting of a number of figured columns (balusters) connected from above by a railing or a horizontal beam; railings from curly columns.

(also pilaster, ital. pilastro from lat. pila "column", "pillar") - a vertical protrusion of the wall, usually having a base and a capital, and thus conditionally depicting a column. The pilaster often repeats the parts and proportions of the order column, however, unlike it, it is usually devoid of entasis (stem thickening).

(from lat. caput - head) - the crowning part of a column or pilaster. The top of the capital protrudes beyond the column, providing a transition to the abacus, which is usually square in shape. The capitals of the three classical orders have a characteristic, easily recognizable shape. Doric capital - a simple round echin pillow; at the Ionic capital - two curls-volutes are molded on the echinus; the Corinthian capital is a high bell-shaped detail, decorated with curls of acanthus leaves.

(from Latin abacus - “board”) - a slab that makes up the upper part of the capital of a column, half-column, pilaster and has a simple quadrangular shape in the Doric, Ancient Ionic and Tuscan orders, and in the New Ionic and Corinthian orders, as well as in the Roman composite - the shape quadrilaterals with truncated corners and sides concave inward, each of which has a sculptural ornament in the middle, usually in the form of a stylized flower.

(the name atlas is also common) - in the European architectural tradition, a sculpture in the form of a man, performing a decorative or functional role in supporting the ceiling of a building, balcony, cornice, etc. May be in place of a column or pilaster. In Roman architecture, the term Telamon is used to refer to such a sculpture.

Rustic(also rustic, rustication; from lat. rusticus - literally "rustic", derived from lat. rus - village; "simple", "rough", "uncouth") - in architecture, facing the outer walls of a building or some spaces on them are quadrangular, with stones properly built, the front side of which is left unhewn or very roughly hewn, and only around the edges is encircled by a small smooth strip. In this case, the term rust means either such a stone itself, or a dividing strip between stones.

A statue of a dressed woman, introduced by ancient Greek architecture to support the entablature and, therefore, replaced the column or pilaster.

(French entablement from table - table, board) - a beam ceiling of a span or the completion of a wall, consisting of an architrave, a frieze and a cornice. An entablature without a frieze is called incomplete, and without an architrave - lightweight.

Frieze(fr. frise) - decorative composition in the form of a horizontal strip or ribbon crowning or framing one or another part of an architectural structure.

Cornice(from the Greek κορωνίς) - a protruding element of the interior and exterior decoration of buildings and premises. In architecture, a cornice separates the plane of the roof from vertical plane wall, or divides the plane of the wall along selected horizontal lines.

In order architecture, the cornice is the crowning part of the entablature, located above the frieze and architrave. The order cornice comes forward sharply and hangs over the rest of the entablature, protecting them from precipitation. The basis of the cornice is a remote plate. The lower part of the plate is equipped with rectangular protrusions - mutuls.

Architrave or epistelion (Italian architrave, from Greek ἀρχι, “arch”, over-, main and lat. trabs beam) is an architectural term that has several meanings.

Firstly, an architrave or architrave covering is generally called any rectilinear crossbar that spans the gap above columns, pillars, or window and door openings.

Secondly, this is the lower part of the entablature, which directly rests on the capitals of the column; in the Tuscan and Doric orders, the architrave is made simple and smooth, while in the Ionic and Corinthian it is horizontally divided into three parts.

Facade(French façade - front, front side of the building) - the outer, front side of the building.

Forms, proportions, decor of the facade are determined by the purpose of the architectural structure, its design features, stylistic decision his architectural style.

There are main, side, rear facades, as well as street and courtyard.

(French bas-relief - low relief) - a kind of sculptural convex relief, in which the image protrudes above the background plane by no more than half the volume. If more - the relief is called high relief (high relief).

(French haut-relief - high relief) - a kind of sculptural convex relief, in which the image protrudes above the background plane by more than half the volume. Some elements can be completely separated from the plane. A common type of decoration of architectural structures; allows you to display multi-figure scenes and landscapes.

(French fronton, from Latin frons, frontis - forehead, front of the wall) - completion (usually triangular, less often semicircular) of the facade of the building, portico, colonnade, limited by two roof slopes on the sides and a cornice at the base.

(from Greek πυλών - gate, entrance): Pillars of large section that serve as a support for flat or vaulted ceilings in some types of structures (for example, in underground metro stations) or supporting the main (bearing) cables in suspension bridges. Massive low pillars standing along sides of the entrance, the entrance to the territory of palaces, parks and other things (the most common in the architecture of classicism).

(lat. porticus) - a covered gallery, the ceiling of which rests on columns that support it either directly, or with the help of an architrave lying on them, or by means of arches thrown between them. The portico, open on one side, is limited on the opposite side by a wall - either deaf or having doors and windows. In other words, a portico is a semi-open space, the roof of which is supported by columns.

(fr. colonnade) - in architecture, a row or rows of columns united by a horizontal overlap.

Colonnades can be used in the form of porticoes and galleries adjacent to the building, which unite its separate volumes and visually connect it with the surrounding space of the courtyard or square (for example, the colonnade of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg, 1801-11, architect A. N. Voronikhin), and also with the environment.

- Architectural detail in the form of a small cornice or cornice with a pediment various forms(triangular, oval and complex compositions) above the window, doorway or niche.

Decoration on the wall of the building in the form of a rectangular frame.

Cartouche(French cartouche, from Italian cartoccio - bundle, bag) - in architecture and decorative arts - “a motif in the form of a half-open, often with torn or notched edges of a roll of paper, a scroll”, on which a coat of arms, emblem or inscription can be placed. Cartouches can also be found at a later time in eclectic, modern, neoclassical architecture.

Cartouches were placed above the main entrances to buildings and window openings, in the tympanums of the pediments, in the interiors of buildings, on monuments, on tombstones and documents. Similar images in an oval or round frame are called medallions.

(from the English molding, molding - in this case, “casting part”, from “casting”) - a decorative detail in the form of an overhead convex plank. Used for decoration various surfaces: walls, ceiling, doors, fireplaces, arches, giving them a more expressive, complete and neat look. Molding can serve as frames for mirrors, medallions and platbands.

in architecture, as a rule, it is a supporting element of the protruding parts of the building and is a ledge in the wall, often profiled and decorated (with decorative scrolls or other decorations). Such brackets are mainly used in architecture using order elements and serve to support balconies, highly protruding decorative and / or functional cornices, etc.

(Italian zoccolo, lit. wooden-soled shoe) - the foot of a building, structure, monument, column and similar structures, lying on the foundation, often protruding in relation to the upper parts of the structure. Can be decoratively veneered. In strip foundations, the plinth can be top part the foundation itself, in the columnar plinth - the wall between the pillars. Socles in relation to the outer walls are classified into sinking, protruding and flush (located in the same plane with the wall).

Archivolt(Italian archivolto, lat. arcus volutus - “framing arc”) - framing an arched opening, highlighting the arc of the arch from the plane of the wall. As a rule, it serves as an element of decorating facades and interiors. A stucco architrave, or a curvilinear rod framing the front surface of an arch or window, can also serve as a description of the archivolt.

(lat. porta - door, gate) - the architecturally designed main entrance of a large structure, as a rule, having a large-scale frame with elaborate ornamentation.

- a continuous series of equal arches. An arcade with an order colonnade is called an order arcade.

(German Erker) - the part of the room protruding beyond the plane of the facade. It allows you to increase the interior space of the dwelling, as well as improve its illumination and insolation, in connection with which the bay window is usually glazed, often around the entire perimeter.

- this is a vertical gutter on the trunk of a column or pilaster (such columns are called fluted, in contrast to smooth ones).

The article lists the main architectural elements of the facade and walls. Facade architecture is very diverse, there are more a large number of and other elements of the facade of buildings and decor.

ventilation called a set of measures and devices necessary to ensure a given state of the air in the working premises. Among the sanitary measures, ventilation occupies one of the main places in the system of improving working conditions in the workplace. Thanks to ventilation, in many cases it is possible to achieve a reduction in the dust content of the air and its pollution with harmful gases and vapors, and to normalize microclimatic conditions.

Types of industrial ventilation

By means of air movement, ventilation is divided into natural and mechanical ventilation. Depending on the capacity of air exchange, ventilation can be local and about general exchange.

By p r i n c e ventilation units subdivided into:

1) exhaust (designed to remove air), which in turn can be local and general; 2) supply air (carry out air supply), which are subdivided into local (air showers, curtains, oases) and general (scattered or concentrated inflow).

With natural ventilation, air exchange occurs due to the temperature difference, and therefore, specific gravity air inside the production facility and outside it, i.e., they work under the influence of thermal pressure and due to the influence of wind (wind pressure).

The effect of these sources is the greater, the greater the temperature difference in the upper and lower zones of the room and the greater the height of the latter.

The temperature difference between the air inside the room (where it is higher) and outside causes the flow of cold air into the room and the displacement of warm air from it. When the wind acts from the windward side of the building, excess pressure is created and fresh air enters the room. A reduced pressure is created on the windward side of the building, as a result of which warm or polluted air is removed from the room. These phenomena are widely used for natural ventilation in workshops with excessive heat generation. However, large air exchanges created by natural ventilation do not always provide the proper hygienic effect.

With a large area of leaks in the external fences of industrial buildings, opening gates and doors in the cold season, due to thermal and wind pressure, drafts and hypothermia may occur working area, and at a great distance of workplaces from the places where outdoor air enters in summer, on the contrary, conditions of insufficient ventilation of the working area may be created. In order to ensure normal natural ventilation, a special organization of air exchange and its management is required. Natural ventilation of industrial premises can be unorganized and organized th.

With unorganized ventilation (ventilation), air enters and leaves through windows, vents, special openings, as well as through leaks in external fences (infiltration). Organized regulated natural ventilation of industrial premises is called aeration. It is carried out with the help of specially created structural elements of industrial buildings - aeration lamps.

In the absence of light and aeration lamps in the ceilings of buildings, natural ventilation can be somewhat improved with the help of special channels or shafts that operate under the influence of thermal pressure. To do this, the mines are equipped with special nozzles - deflectors (Fig. 13). The action of the deflectors is based on the fact that the wind, blowing around the circumference of the nozzle, creates a rarefaction in it, due to which the deflector contributes to the suction of air through the shaft. For a complete

to use the wind pressure of the mine, it is necessary to place it on the highest sections of the roof. Shafts with deflectors are used to remove polluted or overheated air from rooms of relatively small volume (cowsheds, pigsties, agricultural workshops), as well as for localized removal of hot gases from forges, furnaces, etc.

The most rational way of natural air exchange is aeration. It is used for

ventilation of workshops with large heat surpluses, contributing to the removal of not only excess heat, but with it harmful vapors and gases. Aerated buildings are equipped with three rows of openings (1-3), equipped with special transoms. In the walls of buildings, openings are arranged at two levels: at a height of 1 - 1.5 m from the floor (1) and at a height of 4-6 m from the floor (2). In the upper part of the building (usually in the ceiling), glazed light-aeration lanterns are equipped, the openings of which are equipped with transoms that can open to the required amount (3).

In summer, fresh air enters through the open lower openings (1) and is removed through the upper ones (2). For a diagram of the movement of air flows during calm, see fig. 14, a, b and in windy weather. IN winter time the intake of outside air occurs through the upper openings in the walls. The height is taken in such a way that the cold outside air, descending to the working area, has time to warm up sufficiently due to mixing with the warm air of the room. Thus hypothermia of workers is prevented.

Air exchange is regulated by changing the position of the transom flaps. When calculating aeration, determine required area openings. The calculation is made for summer time with calm, as the most unfavorable for aeration.

The action of the wind usually favorably affects the air exchange, increasing it. However, under certain wind directions, it blows into the upper openings of the building's skylights, as a result of which the outside air flows mix with dust and gases and enter the working area. To eliminate this phenomenon, so-called non-blown lanterns equipped with windshields are arranged. The air entering the workshop during aeration can be cooled by fine spraying of water using nozzles in the plane of the supply openings.

Evaporating, water lowers the temperature of the surrounding air and somewhat increases its humidity. The use of artificial cooling of the supply air of aeration devices is especially important in the southern regions of the country.

Aerated buildings must meet certain architectural and construction requirements. The building must be free around the perimeter to allow outside air to enter it through the aeration openings. As an exception, an extension is allowed, but not more than 40% of the length of the longitudinal walls.

Best conditions aerations are created in single-span one-story buildings of sufficient height. It is allowed to place aerated workshops in the upper floors of multi-storey buildings.

Great difficulties are encountered in the natural ventilation of multi-span buildings, the width of which can reach 100-200 m or more. Under these conditions, the supply of fresh, unpolluted air to workplaces located in the center of the room is practically impossible. In these cases, aeration is carried out through special lanterns designed by Baturin, in which the inflow and exhaust

disconnected (at the same time they are uninflated).

It should be borne in mind that aeration of multi-span buildings with inflow through openings in the roof with a small excess of heat in winter can lead to hypothermia of the working area. In such rooms, mechanical ventilation with air heating should be provided. Reliable mechanisms must be equipped to control aeration. The advantage of aeration is the possibility

implementation of large air exchanges (up to several million cubic meters at one o'clock). The device of the aeration system is cheaper than mechanical ventilation systems, but much more difficult to manage, as it depends on weather conditions: the amount of air exchange can vary significantly depending on wind speed, temperature regime inside the building and other conditions. As a result, in the summer, ventilation efficiency can be significantly reduced due to an increase in the outdoor temperature, especially in calm weather. With aeration, it is not always possible to supply fresh air to all workplaces, especially remote ones.

A serious obstacle to the use of aeration is that, along with excess heat, the air of the corresponding working rooms also contains harmful vapors, gases and aerosols, the release of which into the outside atmosphere without purification is unacceptable.

When using aeration, cleaning of ventilation air is not possible.

mechanical ventilation. Unlike natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation allows

pre-treatment of the supply air (cleaning, humidification, heating or cooling) and cleaning of dust, gases and other impurities of the exhaust air before it is released into the atmosphere. Of the other advantages of mechanical ventilation, it should be noted such as uniform operation all year round in the required volumes, regardless of the external weather and climatic conditions, as well as the possibility of supplying air to any point of the working room and removing air from any point; if necessary, the magnitude of air exchanges can be changed within significant limits.

In the fight against industrial hazards, the leading place is occupied by local mechanical exhaust ventilation. It is designed to capture and remove polluted air directly from the places of formation or exit of harmful emissions. The effectiveness of local

exhaust ventilation depends on the rational choice and perfection of the design of the local suction air inlet, the degree of shelter and the adequacy of the vacuum created by the installation, and other conditions. The elements of the exhaust installation are the suction (air inlet), through which air is removed from the room, air ducts; fan; equipment for air purification from dust and gases; air ejection device - exhaust shaft.

All buildings, despite their difference in technical solution, consist of separate structural parts. Walls are one of them. I propose to consider the architectural and structural elements of the walls, get acquainted with their name and purpose.

When designing buildings, they also proceed from aesthetic considerations, giving the facade a look with attractive proportions of the outer elements of the walls of the building.
To exclude solidity (uniformity), the surfaces are conditionally divided vertically (pilasters, for example, fasteners) and horizontally (socle, cornices).

The main elements of the walls

plinth

The lower part of the building (walls), located on the foundation, somewhat protruding beyond the plane of the facade, is called the plinth. It connects the foundation to the walls.

The top of the plinth (cordon) is arranged horizontally, so a building with a high plinth (50-60 cm) is perceived as architecturally complete, towering, as if on a pedestal. In addition to architectural and constructive expressiveness, the plinth protects the building from the penetration of atmospheric precipitation.

Between the foundation and the plinth, waterproofing is arranged to prevent moisture from entering the masonry. In some cases, when the material of the walls and the plinth is different, a waterproofing layer is also provided on top of the plinth.

For non-seismic areas - this is rolled waterproofing (roofing material, modern roll materials). For the seismic zone - this is waterproofing from cement mortar M - 100, 150, 30 mm thick.

The plinth acts as an important architectural and structural element, forming the foundation of the structure, it gives it not only visual, but also structurally greater stability. It must be finished with durable waterproof and frost-resistant materials.

It can be:

Plaster with additives of granite, marble chips, just plaster;
Brick cladding with jointing;
Natural or artificial stone;
Facing with natural, artificial tiles and other options.

1-base; 2-window opening; 3 - doorway; 4 jumpers; 5- ordinary partition; 6 - corner partition; 7- crowning cornice; 8 the same, intermediate; 9- belt; 10 - sandrik; 11-parapet; 12 - pediment; 13 - niche; 14 - pilaster; 15 - buttress; 16-cut; 17 - raskrepka

The architectural and structural elements of the walls give the structure proportionality of shapes and sizes, improve visual perception buildings in general.

openings

Openings are called large holes left during the construction of walls for window, door blocks, stoves. The distance between the openings is called piers.
Types of piers:

ordinary - between adjacent openings;
corner - between the corner of the building and the nearby opening.

The upper, side areas surrounding the opening are called slopes (lintel). In brick exterior walls, the masonry in the openings is arranged with protrusions of a quarter of a brick (from the side of the street).

Jumpers

The structure that covers door, window, arched openings is called a lintel. Jumpers support the walls located above, overlappings. They should rest on the wall masonry.
According to the bearing capacity, the jumpers are divided into:

Bearing elements - must bear the weight load of the wall material above it, the floor plus its own weight;
Non-bearing - only their own weight and the load from the wall material above them.

Prefabricated reinforced concrete products are more common in construction, the dimensions of which are taken depending on the load, the size of the overlapped space, the thickness of the walls on which it will rest. Monolithic lintels are impractical in terms of cost and labor intensity, but they are possible.
Embedding depth is:

for carriers - 250mm;
for non-bearing elements - not less than 125mm;
for partitions - 200mm.

They are mounted on a layer of mortar with a thickness of not more than 15 mm. The geometric shape of the lintel can be bar, slab, facade and beam. If they do not overlap standard size in width, then it is made according to an individually placed order.

Architectural and structural elements of walls - in particular, lintels can also be made of brick type, provided that the width of the overlapped space is not more than 2 meters, with a small load from the wall material laid above, in non-seismic areas, in the absence of vibration. They are used only in bearing walls Oh.

Brick lintels, depending on the laying technique, are:

Ordinary lintels - masonry is of the usual type, like a solid belt, the mortar is used with a higher grade, special quality control is carried out. The height of the masonry layer is calculated by the project, and should not be less than four rows.
When constructing a jumper, a formwork is installed from below it, on which a layer of cement mortar 30 mm thick is laid. Reinforcement is recessed into this layer, the cross section and number of rods of which is determined by the project.
Arched lintels are laid out along the arranged formwork, made in the form of an arc of a given curvature. The brick is laid on edge. In this case, the seams between adjacent bricks are wedge-shaped. The number of rows of masonry must be kept odd.
They are now rarely used, mostly to give the structure architectural and constructive expressiveness. They are mainly present in old buildings.

Cornices

Cornices are horizontal protruding parts of a wall. The main or crowning one is the upper cornice. It is considered as one of the main elements of the outer walls, completing the architectural and structural ensemble of the building. In terms of functionality, it serves to divert precipitation from the roof.

Architectural and structural elements of the walls - cornices are designed taking into account the size of the building, number of storeys, accessories and harmony with the main building around.

As a rule, reinforced concrete prefabricated elements are mounted, which are fastened with anchors. If a small overhang of the cornice is provided, then it is made of brick, by laying masonry (solid brick).

Cornices over openings (window, door) are called sandrikami. The plane of the facades can be divided by additional, intermediate cornices of a simple form - belts.

Expansion joints in the walls of the building

With a large length of the building, it may not react equally with its parts to external influences. These are temperature differences, uneven settlement, seismic vibrations, which is fraught with the appearance of cracks that reduce the bearing capacity of the structure.

Expansion joints divide the building into separate parts from the foundation to the roof. Their width is calculated based on the temperature of the winter period, brand of solutions, wall material. For example, the lower the temperature in winter, the more often seams are arranged.

Sedimentary seams are performed where uneven settlement is expected. On the border of soils of different structure, at the junction of buildings with different number of storeys, and other similar options. Here, the cut is made from the bottom of the foundation.

Anti-seismic seams are provided in areas of increased seismicity on the principle that each separate compartment must be resistant to tremors.

ventilation ducts

In internal walls heated buildings, smoke and ventilation ducts. They are laid out of brick, can be reinforced concrete (ventilation). They are designed for air exchange in rooms with high humidity, with the presence of combustion products, intoxication, and other similar moments.

From each room, a separate exhaust duct is provided according to the norms. The channels should not communicate with each other, and the hood should go outside through the ventilation heads on the roof.

Loggia, balcony, bay window

These are also architectural and structural elements of the walls, providing additional usable area and operational convenience. They serve for household needs, they can be attached to the room where they are located.

Balcony- this is a cantilever slab of reinforced concrete, anchored into the outer wall. It is fenced with railings, balconies are glazed and finished from the inside to exclude rainfall, or they can remain open.
Some owners of the second floors who do not have a balcony arrange them themselves, leaning on racks, but this requires special permission and a project with the calculation of loads on the supporting parts.

Loggia fenced on the sides with walls, and on top with a ceiling. The walls rest on a foundation made specifically for the enclosing walls of the loggia. It is superior in bearing capacity to the balcony. It can also be glazed and make an excellent utility room.

Bay window protrudes beyond the plane of the wall, increasing the interior space from the inside. It is glazed and connected to the interior. This is typical especially in houses of old construction with architectural and constructive external forms. According to the shape in the plan, it can be of different configurations depending on the architectural and constructive solution.

Parapet

Exterior walls quite often end with a parapet, which is a continuation of the masonry and rises above the roof. It is designed to protect the roof, according to the architectural and constructive solution, it is a rectangular wall with a height of 0.7 - 1 meter. The parapet also serves as an architectural detail that adorns the building.

Other description of wall elements

There are other smaller architectural and structural elements of the walls. These include:

Gable- a wall that covers the attic gable roof from the end, framed by cornices protruding beyond the plane.

forceps the same pediment, only without a cornice in the lower part at the base.

niches- a hollow recess in the walls. Heating radiators are recessed in them, built-in wardrobes, plumbing wiring, etc. are arranged.

nests- small holes or recesses intended for laying pipelines in sleeves, sealing the ends of structures, etc.

Pilasters- narrow vertically located protrusions of the walls serve to strengthen them locally with a large length or height, with a rectangular section in plan. They can have a foundation, a basis, a capital, which visually resemble columns.

Such protrusions of semicircular section are called semi-columns. Pilasters, semi-columns give the building aesthetic solemnity, monumentality.

Buttresses- structures that increase the stability of the walls, which are ledges from them, having an inclined outer rib. This design gives additional rigidity, strength in the perception of horizontal loads.

The walls are sometimes made with ledges along the height of the masonry, which are called cut-offs. The ledges on the plane of the facades along its length are called raskrepka.

All architectural and structural elements of the walls have their own functional purpose, and also give the building architectural beauty, expressiveness, and individuality.

Any building is an interconnected system of architectural and structural elements, each of which performs a specific function. These elements can also be called the constituent parts of a building.

All structural elements can be divided into load-bearing and enclosing. The load-bearing elements include those parts of the building that perceive the load from other elements lying above, as well as the payload (the weight of people, furniture, equipment). Enclosing (self-supporting) structures are called, which perceive the load only from their own weight. These are non-bearing walls (including internal partitions), as well as building covering (roofing). External brick walls can be non-bearing if the structural system of the building is not a wall one, but a frame one: in this case, the floors are supported by pillars, and the brickwork, resting on the floor of its floor, performs only a protecting function. The load-bearing external elements of the building also play the role of a fence, protecting the internal space of the building from the effects of the external environment. Internal enclosing elements (partitions) perform the function of dividing the space. External enclosing structures, in addition, perceive the load from snow, wind and other atmospheric phenomena, and therefore must be stronger than similar internal structures.

The set of load-bearing structural elements of a building is called bearing frame. These elements provide strength, rigidity and stability of the building. The supporting frame includes both vertical (walls, pillars, columns) and horizontal (floor) elements. Stationary stairs and the roof are also load-bearing structures.

The carrier frame must be supported by foundation- a structural element that receives loads from the supporting frame (which, in turn, receives loads from non-bearing parts of the building and from environmental influences, as well as a payload) and transfers them to the soil base (soil layers that take the load from the building or structure) . The lower plane of the foundation, with which it rests on the soil base, is called the sole. The upper plane of the foundation, on which the walls or pillars rest, is called the edge. The foundation is the foundation of the building, the most important structural part.

Foundations are tape, columnar, slab (solid) and pile. It is possible to arrange a strip or column foundation from a brick (Fig. 14).

Figure 14. Types of brick foundation: a) tape; b) columnar

Strip foundation is a solid wall (tape). It can be made of reinforced concrete (prefabricated or monolithic), rubble concrete or brick. Strip foundations are usually used in buildings with a wall bearing system. In cross section (in cross section), the strip foundation, as a rule, has the shape of a rectangle, but with high loads on the base, it is made stepped.

Column Foundation- these are poles installed in key places (corners of the building, intersections of load-bearing walls) and along the walls with a certain maximum interval and fastened along the top with strapping beams. Such foundations are used in frame or wall-type buildings with a low weight of structures (for example, under wooden walls). The pillars can be made of wood, brick, rubble concrete or reinforced concrete (prefabricated or monolithic).

Pile and slab foundations used in buildings with a large load on the base or in difficult soil conditions. These two types of foundations can be combined (when the building rests on a solid slab, installed on piles hammered or poured into the ground, located throughout the base area).

plinth- the upper part of the foundation, located above ground level. basement, like underground structures, needs increased resistance to moisture, however, it can be made of a different material than the underground part of the foundation. For the construction of brick foundations and plinths, only full-bodied ceramic bricks of high grades are used. If a column foundation is used in the building, the plinth can be made in the form of a fence - a wall or bricks or other material located between the foundation pillars protruding above the ground, the soil and the strapping beams.

The plinth can be made recessed relative to the wall or, on the contrary, protruding beyond its plane. A plinth flush with the wall is usually not suitable, since in this case it is more difficult to waterproof between the wall and the plinth. If the plinth protrudes beyond the plane of the wall, the protruding part of its edge is called a cordon.

Around the basement at the level of the ground base, a blind area is performed - an inclined element to drain water from the basement and foundation.

Walls- a vertical load-bearing element of a building, having an elongated (extended) shape in plan, enclosing the premises in the building from the external environment and from each other. Walls can be external and internal, load-bearing and self-supporting. Internal self-supporting walls are called partitions; they divide the space of the building within the floor into rooms. There are also non-load-bearing (curtain) walls made from prefabricated (factory-made) panels hung on floors. The walls are made of stone, brick, reinforced concrete, concrete blocks and wood. For partitions, brick, wood, reinforced concrete or drywall are used.

The side of the wall facing the street, together with the totality of structural and decorative elements called the front of the building. Distinguish between the main facade (facing the street, square, etc.), side and courtyard facades.

Pillars, columns, racks, pylons- vertical load-bearing elements of the frame system, which are free-standing supports.

corners walls - the place where the ends of two walls meet. Most often this connection is at a right angle, other angles are much less common in projects.

Partition- the part of the wall located between two openings. According to the method of laying, a brick wall resembles a pillar. The pier adjacent to the corner of the wall is called the corner pier, the rest of the piers are ordinary.

Cornice- a ledge in the upper part of the wall, designed to protect the walls from water flowing from the roof. This element can also play a decorative role. In brickwork, the cornice is formed by laying several rows with an overlap. The cornice can also be arranged at the level of interfloor ceilings - for additional protection of the "floor - walls" node and for the architectural and artistic design of the facade (with the number of floors). Interfloor stepped cornice is also called interfloor profiled traction. Instead of a cornice, a corbel can be arranged between floors - a horizontal protruding element of a simple rectangular profile. When constructing interfloor cornices, the upper cornice located under the roof is called the main, or crowning, cornice. Small cornices, called sandriks, can be located above door or window openings. The cornice, located under the window opening, is called window sill thrust. The distance over which the cornice protrudes beyond the plane of the wall, as well as the protruding part itself, is called the overhang of the cornice.

opening- an opening in a wall or ceiling to accommodate a door, window, hatch or ladder. The top and side faces of a door or window opening are called slopes. A wall without openings is called a blank wall.

openings in brick wall lintels are sure to complete - metal or reinforced concrete (with dimensions that are multiples of the brick size) beams that support the masonry above the opening. The lintel can also be arched, while it can be made of brickwork. A straight (not arched) brick lintel is obtained only with preliminary reinforcement and using formwork.

Windows and doors (filling window and doorways) refer to the enclosing elements of the building. Windows serve to illuminate and ventilate the premises, doors - to communicate the premises with each other and with the external environment.

overlap- a horizontal load-bearing structure supported by walls or pillars (columns) and bearing the weight of partitions, equipment, people and furniture. The enclosing role of floors is reduced to dividing the building into floors, as well as to protecting it from the external environment from below and from above. The overlap that separates two ordinary floors is called interfloor, or interfloor. The overlap that separates the first floor of the building from the basement or soil base is called the basement, or above the basement. The attic is the floor that separates the top floor from the attic. If there is no attic in the building, the upper floor performs the function of the roof structure. The floor may be a solid slab (or a combination of slabs) or a beam system. There are also ceilings of an unusual shape: arched, vaulted, etc. In individual construction, such ceilings are a rarity in our time.

On top of the load-bearing structures of the floors on the operated floors, a floor covering is arranged from the selected material (boards, ceramic tiles, linoleum, laminate, parquet, etc.), from below - ceiling covering.

Balconies, loggias, bay windows are also architectural and structural elements of the building. The balcony is a protruding wall open area(without walls, but with a fence) at the level of one of the floors. The bay window, like the balcony, protrudes beyond the surface of the wall, but has a capital (wall) fence, which can be arranged at the level of several floors, uniting them. The loggia does not protrude from the plane outer wall and is a platform open from the side of the facade.

Brickwork the building will definitely be combined with other materials: wood, reinforced concrete, metal. Since these materials make up different structural elements of buildings and have different specifications, often between masonry and other material, high-quality thermal and waterproofing is required.

Roof- a set of load-bearing elements on which the coating (roof) rests, as well as this coating itself. The roof is the top waterproofing part of the roof. The load-bearing elements of the roof are trusses, rafters, beams, arches (depending on the type of construction). Roofing refers to the base under the roof (sheathing, insulating materials) And roofing(tile, slate, roofing metal, etc.).

The roof performs both a load-bearing and enclosing function. The design must provide for the removal of atmospheric precipitation from the building. Water drainage can be external and internal. In individual construction, an external drainage system is most often used, consisting of gutters, funnels and pipes through which water enters the storm sewer without harming the walls and foundation. Internal drainage is more complicated in the device; it is usually used in buildings with flat roof and large building area.

Roofs are flat (with a slope of up to 2.5%) and pitched. Pitched differ in the number and shape of slopes (from single-slope to complex multi-slope and domed).

Coating- enclosing element of structures, located on top of the load-bearing elements of the roof and performing the function of protection from precipitation and other environmental influences.